It has been shown that humans prefer consonant sounds from the early stages of development. From a comparative psychological perspective, although previous studies have shown that birds and monkeys can discriminate between consonant and dissonant sounds, it remains unclear whether nonhumans have a spontaneous preference for consonant music over dissonant music as humans do. We report here that a five-month-old human-raised chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) preferred consonant music. The infant chimpanzee consistently preferred to produce, with the aid of our computerized setup, consonant versions of music for a longer duration than dissonant versions. This result suggests that the preference for consonance is not unique to humans. Further, it supports the hypothesis that one major basis of musical appreciation has some evolutionary origins.

The findings support the cross-cultural generalizability of the three-factor structure of the PCS and indicate that the PCS-assessed catastrophizing subdomains provide greater explanatory power than the PCS total score for understanding pain-related functioning.

The current findings indicate that metacognitions are associated with both pain control beliefs and catastrophizing and therefore may play an important role in the development or maintenance of pain-related cognitive content thought to influence patient functioning. Research is needed to determine whether treatments that encourage changes in both metacognitions and cognitive content are more effective than treatments that focus on cognitive content alone.

This study explores how time orientation causes identity formation in emerging adulthood. We assume identity formation can be led by a balanced time orientation, which is defined as a time orientation with which individuals not only pursue a future goal but also combine it with living fully in the present. We used a long-term longitudinal design. The participants (N = 181), who were college students at the beginning of this investigation, were followed from age 20-31 years. They were asked to answer a questionnaire that was composed of the Time Orientation Questionnaire (TOQ) and the Identity Status Scale (ISS). A bivariate latent growth curve model using the data at age 24, 27, and 30 years revealed that, as predicted, a balanced time orientation contributed to identity development. We mainly discuss the results of the analyses in terms of the role of a balanced time orientation in revising identity as they accommodate a wider range of life experiences during the transition to adulthood.

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