Bench scale studies were performed to evaluate removal and toxicity of copper nanoparticles (CuNPs) and copper ions in activated sludge biomass. The data indicated that, under the test conditions, copper nanoparticles were removed more effectively (∼95%) than copper ions (30-70%) from the wastewater. Mechanisms of CuNP removal were further investigated by equilibrating CuNP and copper ion in activated sludge filtrate (0.45 μm). The predominant mechanisms of copper removal appear to be aggregation and settling (CuNP) or precipitation (copper ion) rather than biosorption. Most probable number (MPN) test data indicated that addition of 10 mg/L of copper ion was toxic to both coliform and ammonia oxidizing bacteria in the wastewater while no inhibitory effects were observed with the addition of the same amount of copper nanoparticles. Respirometry data indicated a 55% decrease in respiration rate when 10 mg/L ionic copper was added. However, no significant decrease in respiration rate was observed in the presence of copper nanoparticles. The toxicity of copper to activated sludge microorganisms appears to be a function of the concentration and characteristics of copper remaining in solution/suspension.

The production of zinc nanomaterial has increased significantly over the past several years and, as a result, nanoparticles have navigated their way into wastewater streams. The transportation and toxicity of zinc nanomaterial within the wastewater treatment processes is not well known. In this study, the zinc nanomaterial and its fate were characterized in an activated sludge treatment process. The tests performed included batch studies to evaluate abiotic and biotic removal, toxicity studies to evaluate inhibition to coliform and nitrifying bacteria, and bioreactor studies to evaluate impact on operating parameters. Stock solutions of zinc nanomaterial varied in size from 50 to 500 nm, but when added to an activated sludge solution, the nanoparticles agglomerated to larger sizes such that more than 60% of the zinc nanomaterial settled out of solution. However, when ionic zinc was added to activated sludge, more than 60% of the ionic zinc remained in suspension. It is likely that the ionic strength of the wastewater influenced the aggregation of the nanomaterial. Differences in the extent of removal between ionic and nano zinc species indicate that the mechanisms governing their removal are different. Toxicity analysis showed that zinc nanomaterial did not inhibit growth of coliform and ammonia oxidizing bacteria. However, ionic zinc inhibited the growth of both the coliform and ammonia oxidizing bacteria. Bioreactors were set up using activated sludge that was collected from a local treatment plant operating only in carbon oxidation mode. The treatment plant was operated at an SRT of 1.2 days and an MLSS of 650 mg/L. Several key parameters (COD, MLSS, pH) in the bioreactors were monitored through a 7-day incubation period, but showed no significant changes due to the addition of nano or ionic zinc. It is possible that the toxicity of zinc nanomaterial was not observed in these experiments because the nanomaterial agglomerated and settled out of solution.

The use of manufactured nanomaterial is becoming more common is everyday products but the effect of such particles can have after the use of the products is largely unknown. In this study, removal and toxicity of nanoparticles and copper ions in activated sludge biomass were studied using copper nanoparticles in bench scale studies. Copper nanoparticles were removed more effectively (~ 95%) than copper ions (30 -70%) from the wastewater. Most Probable Number (MPN) test indicated that copper nanoparticles showed no inhibitory effects while 10 mg/l of copper ion were toxic to both coliform and ammonia oxidizing bacteria in the wastewater. The toxicity of copper to activated sludge microorganisms appear to depend on the concentration of (nano or ionic) copper in suspension.

The search for a reliable and local supply of potable drinking water has spurred growth of desalting facilities in Southern California and elsewhere. Desalters built in the past two decades share many similarities and challenges in efficiently operating reverse osmosis technology.