The divergence of chimpanzee and bonobo provides one of the few examples of recent hominid speciation1,2. Here we describe a fully annotated, high-quality bonobo genome assembly, which was constructed without guidance from reference genomes by applying a multiplatform genomics approach. We generate a bonobo genome assembly in which more than 98% of genes are completely annotated and 99% of the gaps are closed, including the resolution of about half of the segmental duplications and almost all of the full-length mobile elements. We compare the bonobo genome to those of other great apes1,3–5 and identify more than 5,569 fixed structural variants that specifically distinguish the bonobo and chimpanzee lineages. We focus on genes that have been lost, changed in structure or expanded in the last few million years of bonobo evolution. We produce a high-resolution map of incomplete lineage sorting and estimate that around 5.1% of the human genome is genetically closer to chimpanzee or bonobo and that more than 36.5% of the genome shows incomplete lineage sorting if we consider a deeper phylogeny including gorilla and orangutan. We also show that 26% of the segments of incomplete lineage sorting between human and chimpanzee or human and bonobo are non-randomly distributed and that genes within these clustered segments show significant excess of amino acid replacement compared to the rest of the genome.

Flow cytometry holds promise to accelerate antibiotic susceptibility determinations; however, without robust multidimensional statistical analysis, general discrimination criteria have remained elusive. In this study, a new statistical method, probability binning signature quadratic form (PB-sQF), was developed and applied to analyze flow cytometric data of bacterial responses to antibiotic exposure. Both sensitive lab strains (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and a multidrug resistant, clinically isolated strain (E. coli) were incubated with the bacteria-targeted dye, maltohexaose-conjugated IR786, and each of many bactericidal or bacteriostatic antibiotics to identify changes induced around corresponding minimum inhibition concentrations (MIC). The antibiotic-induced damages were monitored by flow cytometry after 1-h incubation through forward scatter, side scatter, and fluorescence channels. The 3-dimensional differences between the flow cytometric data of the no-antibiotic treated bacteria and the antibiotic-treated bacteria were characterized by PB-sQF into a 1-dimensional linear distance. A 99% confidence level was established by statistical bootstrapping for each antibiotic-bacteria pair. For the susceptible E. coli strain, statistically significant increments from this 99% confidence level were observed from 1/16x MIC to 1x MIC for all the antibiotics. The same increments were recorded for P. aeruginosa, which has been reported to cause difficulty in flow-based viability tests. For the multidrug resistant E. coli, significant distances from control samples were observed only when an effective antibiotic treatment was utilized. Our results suggest that a rapid and robust antimicrobial susceptibility test (AST) can be constructed by statistically characterizing the differences between sample and control flow cytometric populations, even in a label-free scheme with scattered light alone. These distances vs paired controls coupled with rigorous statistical confidence limits offer a new path toward investigating initial biological responses, screening for drugs, and shortening time to result in antimicrobial sensitivity testing.

Sepsis, a life-threatening immune response to blood infections (bacteremia), has a ∼30% mortality rate and is the 10th leading cause of US hospital deaths. The typical bacterial loads in adult septic patients are ≤100 bacterial cells (colony forming units, CFU) per ml blood, while pediatric patients exhibit only ∼1000 CFU/ml. Due to the low numbers, bacteria must be propagated through ∼24-hours blood cultures to generate sufficient CFUs for diagnosis and further analyses. Herein, we demonstrate that, unlike other rapid post-blood culture antibiotic susceptibility tests (ASTs), our phenotypic approach can drastically accelerate ASTs for the most common sepsis-causing gram-negative pathogens by circumventing long blood culture-based amplification. For all blood isolates of multi-drug resistant pathogens investigated (Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Acinetobacter nosocomialis), effective antibiotic(s) were readily identified within the equivalent of 8 hours from initial blood draw using <0.5 mL of adult blood per antibiotic. These methods should drastically improve patient outcomes by significantly reducing time to actionable treatment information and reduce the incidence of antibiotic resistance. © 2018 International Society for Advancement of Cytometry.

TRP channel-associated factor 1/2 (TCAF1/TCAF2) proteins antagonistically regulate the cold-sensor protein TRPM8 in multiple human tissues. Understanding their significance has been complicated given the locus spans a gap-ridden region with complex segmental duplications in GRCh38. Using long-read sequencing, we sequence-resolve the locus, annotate full-length TCAF models in primate genomes, and show substantial human-specific TCAF copy number variation. We identify two human super haplogroups, H4 and H5, and establish that TCAF duplications originated ~1.7 million years ago but diversified only in Homo sapiens by recurrent structural mutations. Conversely, in all archaic-hominin samples the fixation for a specific H4 haplotype without duplication is likely due to positive selection. Here, our results of TCAF copy number expansion, selection signals in hominins, and differential TCAF2 expression between haplogroups and high TCAF2 and TRPM8 expression in liver and prostate in modern-day humans imply TCAF diversification among hominins potentially in response to cold or dietary adaptations.