It is well established that mycotoxin exposure can have adverse effects on reproductive health resulting to poor reproductive potential. The most studied mycotoxin in relation to poor reproductive health in humans is aflatoxin, although fumonisins, trichothecenes and zearalenone have also been reported to impair reproductive function and cause abnormal foetal development. These potent fungal toxins contaminate many food products making them a prominent agricultural, food safety and public health challenge, especially in Africa due to little or lack of mycotoxin regulation in agricultural products. Neonates can be exposed to aflatoxins in utero, as the toxins pass from mother to the foetus through the placenta. This exposure may continue during breast feeding, to the introduction of weaning foods, and then foods taken by adults. The consequences of aflatoxin exposure in mothers, foetus and children are many, including anaemia in pregnancy, low birth weight, interference with nutrient absorption, suppression of immune function, child growth retardation and abnormal liver function. In males, reports have indicated a possible relationship between aflatoxin exposure and poor sperm quality culminating in infertility. Maternal exposure to fumonisin during early pregnancy has been associated with increased risk of neural tube defects among newborns in regions where maize is the common dietary staple with the possibility of chronic fumonisin exposure. Furthermore, zearalenone has been linked to precocious puberty and premature thelarche in girls, correlating with extremely high serum oestrogen levels. This review presents an overview of the several reports linking aflatoxins, fumonisins, trichothecenes, and zearalenone exposure to poor reproductive health outcomes in Africa, with emphasis on birth outcomes, foetal health and infertility.

Epidemiological studies show that there is global decline in male fertility primarily as a result of poor sperm quality and this is attributed to exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in the environment, food and pharmaceutical products, including mycotoxins and pesticides. The Leydig cells in the male testes are responsible for producing androgens, hormones that play major roles in male development and reproductive function. Therefore, any toxin that affects the function and morphology of the Leydig cells may result in sub-fertility or infertility. The cytotoxic effects of single and binary mixtures of aflatoxin B (AFB), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), alpha-zearalenol (α-ZOL), beta-zearalenol (β-ZOL), 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl) ethane (p,p'-DDT) and 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl) ethylene (p,p'-DDE) on a model cell line, the MA-10 Leydig cells, were evaluated using 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-dipenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay after 48h of exposure. With single toxin treatment at doses between 0.1μM and 64μM for 48h, DON was the most cytotoxic to MA-10 cells with a half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC) value of 12.3μM followed by α-ZOL (IC: 28μM) and OTA (IC: 30μM) while the IC of AFB, p,p'-DDT and p,p'-DDE were above the highest concentration tested (64μM). Co-exposure with p,p'-DDT or p,p'-DDE enhanced the toxicity of DON, OTA and ZEN to MA-10 Leydig cells, particularly at higher concentrations. This highlights the possible adverse effects on male reproductive health following co-exposure to these toxins.

Chronic and intense geohelminth infections can contribute to malnutrition, iron-deficiency anaemia, morbidity and sometimes, affecting cognitive process, and provoking intestinal obstruction or rectal prolapse. The prevalence of geohelminths on edible fruits and vegetables cultivated in rural villages of Ebonyi State, Nigeria was determined in this study. A total of 250 samples (five per product from each market) were examined for contamination by geohelminths using sedimentation and floatation methods. One hundred and one (40.4%) of the two hundred and fifty (250) fruits and vegetables were positive for geohelminths microscopically. Among the fruits, pineapple had the highest number of geohelminths, 18(72%) while Pawpaw had the lowest, 13 (12 %). And among the vegetables, water leaf had the highest number of geohelminths 16 (64 %) while bitter leaf had the lowest number of geohelminths, 7 (28 %). Geohelminths identified were ova of Ascaris lumbricoides (54.5 %), Strongyloides stercoralis (6.9 %), ova of Hookworm (23.8 %), Trichuris Trichiura (8.9 %), Enterobius vermicularis (5.9 %). This study shows high level of fruits and vegetables contamination with geohelminths in the study area. This portends a great risk of acquiring intestinal parasites by eating improperly washed fruits and vegetables.