Large-eddy simulations (LES) with the newThis is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. R. Heinze et al.at building confidence in the model's ability to simulate small-to mesoscale variability in turbulence, clouds and precipitation. The results are encouraging: the high-resolution model matches the observed variability much better at small-to mesoscales than the coarser resolved reference model. In its highest grid resolution, the simulated turbulence profiles are realistic and column water vapour matches the observed temporal variability at short time-scales. Despite being somewhat too large and too frequent, small cumulus clouds are well represented in comparison with satellite data, as is the shape of the cloud size spectrum. Variability of cloud water matches the satellite observations much better in ICON than in the reference model. In this sense, it is concluded that the model is fit for the purpose of using its output for parametrization development, despite the potential to improve further some important aspects of processes that are also parametrized in the high-resolution model.

The performance of the laser-optical Particle Size Velocity (PARSIVEL) disdrometer is evaluated to determine the characteristics of falling snow. PARSIVEL's measuring principle is reexamined to detect its limitations and pitfalls when applied to solid precipitation. This study uses snow observations taken during the Canadian Cloudsat/Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation (CALIPSO) Validation Project (C3VP) campaign, when two PARSIVEL instruments were collocated with a single twodimensional disdrometer (2-DVD), which allows more detailed observation of snowflakes. When characterizing the snowflake size, PARSIVEL instruments inherently retrieve only one size parameter, which is approximately equal to the widest horizontal dimension (more accurately with large snowflakes) and that has no microphysical meaning. Unlike for raindrops, the equivolume PARSIVEL diameter-the PARSIVEL output variable-has no physical counterpart for snowflakes.PARSIVEL's fall velocity measurement may not be accurate for a single snowflake particle. This is due to the internally assumed relationship between horizontal and vertical snow particle dimensions. The uncertainty originates from the shape-related factor, which tends to depart more and more from unity with increasing snowflake sizes and can produce large errors. When averaging over a large number of snowflakes, the correction factor is size dependent with a systematic tendency to an underestimation of the fall speed (but never exceeding 20%).Compared to a collocated 2-DVD for long-lasting events, PARSIVEL seems to overestimate the number of small snowflakes and large particles. The disagreement between PARSIVEL and 2-DVD snow measurements can only be partly ascribed to PARSIVEL intrinsic limitations (border effects and sizing problems), but it has to deal with the difficulties and drawbacks of both instruments in fully characterizing snow properties.

Abstract.We investigated the impact of mineral dust particles on clouds, radiation and atmospheric state during a strong Saharan dust event over Europe in May 2008, applying a comprehensive online-coupled regional model framework that explicitly treats particle microphysics and chemical composition. Sophisticated parameterizations for aerosol activation and ice nucleation, together with two-moment cloud microphysics are used to calculate the interaction of the different particles with clouds depending on their physical and chemical properties.The impact of dust on cloud droplet number concentration was found to be low, with just a slight increase in cloud droplet number concentration for both uncoated and coated dust. For temperatures lower than the level of homogeneous freezing, no significant impact of dust on the number and mass concentration of ice crystals was found, though the concentration of frozen dust particles reached up to 100 l −1 during the ice nucleation events. Mineral dust particles were found to have the largest impact on clouds in a temperature range between freezing level and the level of homogeneous freezing, where they determined the number concentration of ice crystals due to efficient heterogeneous freezing of the dust particles and modified the glaciation of mixed phase clouds.Our simulations show that during the dust events, ice crystals concentrations were increased twofold in this temperature range (compared to if dust interactions are neglected).This had a significant impact on the cloud optical properties, causing a reduction in the incoming short-wave radiation at the surface up to −75 W m −2 . Including the direct interaction of dust with radiation caused an additional reduction in the incoming short-wave radiation by 40 to 80 W m −2 , and the incoming long-wave radiation at the surface was increased significantly in the order of +10 W m −2 .The strong radiative forcings associated with dust caused a reduction in surface temperature in the order of −0.2 to −0.5 K for most parts of France, Germany, and Italy during the dust event. The maximum difference in surface temperature was found in the East of France, the Benelux, and Western Germany with up to −1 K. This magnitude of temperature change was sufficient to explain a systematic bias in numerical weather forecasts during the period of the dust event.

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Abstract. This paper presents the Semi-empirical URban canopY parametrization (SURY) v1.0, which bridges the gap between bulk urban land-surface schemes and explicit-canyon schemes. Based on detailed observational studies, modelling experiments and available parameter inventories, it offers a robust translation of urban canopy parameters – containing the three-dimensional information – into bulk parameters. As a result, it brings canopy-dependent urban physics to existing bulk urban land-surface schemes of atmospheric models. At the same time, SURY preserves a low computational cost of bulk schemes for efficient numerical weather prediction and climate modelling at the convection-permitting scales. It offers versatility and consistency for employing both urban canopy parameters from bottom-up inventories and bulk parameters from top-down estimates. SURY is tested for Belgium at 2.8 km resolution with the COSMO-CLM model (v5.0_clm6) that is extended with the bulk urban land-surface scheme TERRA_URB (v2.0). The model reproduces very well the urban heat islands observed from in situ urban-climate observations, satellite imagery and tower observations, which is in contrast to the original COSMO-CLM model without an urban land-surface scheme. As an application of SURY, the sensitivity of atmospheric modelling with the COSMO-CLM model is addressed for the urban canopy parameter ranges from the local climate zones of http://WUDAPT.org. City-scale effects are found in modelling the land-surface temperatures, air temperatures and associated urban heat islands. Recommendations are formulated for more precise urban atmospheric modelling at the convection-permitting scales. It is concluded that urban canopy parametrizations including SURY, combined with the deployment of the WUDAPT urban database platform and advancements in atmospheric modelling systems, are essential.