Sickle cell disease (SCD) is characterized by red cell sickling, tissue infarcts, pain and haemolysis. Haemolysis leads to anaemia, transfusion and vasculopathic multi-organ damage (VMOD). Every SCD patient maintains a chronic steady state haemolysis (SSH), which is often aggravated to hyperhaemolysis (HH) by inherited and/or acquired comorbidities. Hence, this article aims to present an updated and comprehensive narrative literature review of aetiopathogenesis, management and mitigation of SCD haemolysis in steady state and in various hyperhaemolytic states. Literature search revealed SSH is initiated by steady state sickling due to tissue hypoxia and is driven by lactic acidemia, Bohr effect, low pyruvate kinase activity, reduced oxygen affinity of HbS, lipid peroxidation, eryptosis, senescence antigen expression, Fc-receptor or ligand mediated erythro-phagocytosis, xanthine oxidase (XO) hyperactivity and intravascular red cells lysis. SSH is often aggravated to chronic or acute HH by various acquired and/or inherited haemolytic comorbidities such as G6PD deficiency, hereditary spherocytosis (HS), acute/chronic hypersplenic or acute hepatic sequestration, infective erythrocytotropism and erythrocytopathy, haemophagocytic syndrome, transfusion reaction, alloimmune, autoimmune and drug-induced haemolysis. While transfusion provides short-term solution for severe haemolysis and anaemia in SCD, long-term solution must include mitigation of haemolysis by using HbF enhancers, HbS oxygen affinity modifiers, XO inhibitors, immune modulators for immune-haemolysis, use of anti-oxidants to minimize peroxidation, avoidance of oxidants if patient is also G6PD deficient, administering antibiotics/vaccinations to treat/prevent infections, splenectomy for comorbid HS or any recalcitrant hypersplenic splenomegaly. This narrative review underscores importance of managing SSH and HH in order to alleviate anaemia, minimize transfusion, and prevent VMOD in SCD.
Background: Sickle cell disease (SCD) is associated with chronic haemolysis, immuno-suppression and susceptibility to infections, which may trigger infection-associated haemolysis (IAH). SCD patients are vulnerable to anaemic effect of IAH due to vicious interaction between pre-existing ‘inherited’ chronic haemolysis and ‘acquired’IAH. IAH in SCD manifests as febrile haemolytic crisis with clinical and laboratory features of severe anaemia or pancytopenia. Clinico-pathological perspectives of IAH in SCD are fragmented. This review presents a comprehensive but concise overview of pathogenesis, management and prevention of IAH in SCD.Methodology and results: Online literature search using search terms such as ‘sickle cell disease, viral, bacterial, parasitic, fungal, infections, hyperhaemolytic crisis, haemophagocytic syndrome, severe anaemia, pancytopenia’ in various combinations was done on PubMed/Medline, Google, Google-Scholar and Bing. Overall, 112 relevant publications were retrieved, which included 109 peer reviewed journal articles, 2 World Health Organization (WHO) technical reports, and 1 edited text book. A range of bacterial (Bartonella spp, Mycoplasma spp., Mycobacterium avium complex), viral (Dengue, SARS-CoV-2, Parvovirus-B19, Cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus), parasitic(Plasmodium spp., Babesia spp.), and fungal (Histoplasma spp.) infections were associated with IAH in SCD. There are two broad types of IAH in patients with SCD; infection associated extra-medullary haemolysis (IAEMH) and infection associated intra-medullary haemolysis (IAIMH). While IAEMH is associated with severe anaemia due to intravascular haemolysis caused by red cell invasion, oxidative injury, auto-antibodies, and/or pathogen-haem interaction, IAIMH is associated with haemophagocytic tri-lineage destruction of haematopoietic precursors in the bone marrow.Conclusion: Various microbial pathogens have been associated with IAH in SCD. SCD patients with fever, severe anaemia or pancytopenia should be investigated for early diagnosis and prompt treatment of IAH, which is a lifethreateninghaematological emergency for which transfusion therapy alone may not suffice. Prompt and sustainable termination of IAH may require therapeutic combination of transfusion, anti-microbial chemotherapy, and immune modulation therapy. SCD patients should also receive counselling on hygiene, barrier protection against vectors, routine chemoprophylaxis for locally endemic diseases, and immunization for vaccine-preventable infections as a long-term preventive strategy against IAH. Contexte: La drépanocytose (SCD) est associée à une hémolyse chronique, à une immunosuppression et à une susceptibilité aux infections, ce qui peut déclencher une hémolyse associée à une infection (HIA). Les patientsatteints de SCD sont vulnérables à l'effet anémique de l'HIA en raison de l'interaction vicieuse entre l'hémolyse chronique "héréditaire" préexistante et l'HIA "acquise". L'HIA dans la SCD se manifeste par une crise hémolytique fébrile avec des caractéristiques cliniques et de laboratoire d'anémie sévère ou de pancytopénie. Les perspectives clinico-pathologiques de l'HIA dans la SCD sont fragmentées. Cette revue présente un aperçu complet mais concis de la pathogenèse, de la gestion et de la prévention de l'HIA dans la drépanocytose.Méthodologie et résultats: Une recherche documentaire en ligne à l'aide de termes de recherche tels que "drépanocytose, virale, bactérienne, parasitaire, fongique, infections, crise hyperhémolytique, syndrome hémophagocytaire,anémie sévère, pancytopénie" dans diverses combinaisons a été effectuée sur PubMed/Medline, Google, Google-Scholar et Bing. Au total, 112 publications pertinentes ont été récupérées, dont 109 articles de revues à comité de lecture, 2 rapports techniques de l'Organisation mondiale de la santé (OMS) et 1 manuel édité. Unegamme bactérienne (Bartonella spp, Mycoplasma spp., Mycobacterium avium complex), virale (Dengue, SARS-CoV-2, Parvovirus-B19, Cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus), parasitaire (Plasmodium spp., Babesia spp.), et lesinfections fongiques (Histoplasma spp) étaient associées à l'IAH dans la SCD. Il existe deux grands types d'HIA chez les patients atteints de SCD; hémolyse extra-médullaire associée à une infection (IAEMH) et hémolyse intramédullaireassociée à une infection (IAIMH). Alors que l'IAEMH est associée à une anémie sévère due à une hémolyse intravasculaire causée par l'invasion des globules rouges, une lésion oxydative, des auto-anticorps et/ou une interaction pathogène-hème, l'IAEMH est associée à la destruction tri-lignée hémophagocytaire des précurseurshématopoïétiques dans la moelle osseuse.Conclusion: Divers agents pathogènes microbiens ont été associés à l'IAH dans la SCD. Les patients atteints de SCD avec de la fièvre, une anémie sévère ou une pancytopénie doivent être examinés pour un diagnostic précoce et un traitement rapide de l'HIA, qui est une urgence hématologique potentiellement mortelle pour laquelle la thérapie transfusionnelle seule peut ne pas suffire. L'arrêt rapide et durable de l'HIA peut nécessiter une combinaison thérapeutique de transfusion, de chimiothérapie antimicrobienne et de thérapie de modulation immunitaire. Lespatients atteints de drépanocytose devraient également recevoir des conseils sur l'hygiène, la barrière de protection contre les vecteurs, la chimioprophylaxie de routine pour les maladies endémiques locales et la vaccination contreles infections évitables par la vaccination en tant que stratégie préventive à long terme contre l'HIA.
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