The paper focuses on exceptionally hot summers (EHS) as a manifestation of contemporary climate warming. The study identifies EHS occurrences in Central and Eastern Europe and describes the characteristic features of the region's thermal conditions. Average air temperatures in June, July and August were considered, as well as the number of days with maximum temperatures exceeding 25, 30 and 35°C, and with a minimum temperature greater than >20°C, as recorded at 59 weather stations in 1951-2010. Extremely hot summers are defined as having an average temperature equal to or greater than the long-term average plus 2 SD. A calendar of EHSs was compiled and their spatial extent identified. The region experienced 12 EHSs, which occurred in a given year at 5 % or more stations (1972, 1981, 1988, 1992, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2002, 2003, 2006, 2007 and 2010). The EHS frequency of occurrence was found to be clearly on an increase. Indeed, only one EHS occurred during the first 30 years, but these occurred five times during the last 10 years of the study period. Their geographical extent varied both in terms of location and size. EHSs were observed at 57 out of the total of 59 weather stations in the study (the exceptions were Pecora and Cluj). The average air temperature of EHSs tended to exceed the relevant long-term average by 2-4°C. The summer of 2010 was among the hottest (temperature anomaly 5.5-6°C) and spatially largest.

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Extreme thermal conditions appear to occupy an important place among research subjects at a time of climate warming. This study investigates the frequency, duration and spatial extent of thermally anomalous winters in Europe during the 60 years between 1951 and 2010. Exceptionally cold winters (ECWs) and exceptionally mild winters (EMWs) were identified using the statistical criterion of plus/minus two standard deviations from the longterm winter temperature (January-December) recorded at 60 weather stations. It was demonstrated that ECWs have occurred more frequently and covered larger territories than EMWs and that they may occur anywhere in Europe, while EMWs were limited to its southern and western parts. ECWs are characterised by greater absolute temperature anomalies, as anomalies greater than |6.0°C| account for 35 % of ECWs, but only for 8 % of EMWs. The greatest anomalies are found in the east of the continent. The largest territory affected by an ECW included 24 stations in 1962/1963, while the equivalent among the EMWs included 11 stations in 2006/2007. The study also confirmed an expected trend whereby ECWs diminished in frequency in favour of EMWs in the second half of the 60-year study period.

Investigation of extreme thermal conditions is important from the perspective of global warming. Therefore, this study has been undertaken in order to determine the frequency, timing and spatial extent of extremely cold months in winter time at 60 weather stations across Europe over a sixty-year period from 1951 to 2010. Extremely cold months (ECMs) are defined as months in which the average air temperature is lower than the corresponding multi-annual average by at least 2 standard deviations. Half of all the ECMs occurred in the years 1951-1970 (33 out of 67). The lowest number of ECMs was recorded in the decade 1991-2000, but since the beginning of the 21st century, their density and territorial extent has started to increase again. The extremely cold months with ECMs of the greatest spatial extent, covering at least one third of the stations (over 20 stations), included:

A b s t r a c tThe paper explores exceptional thermal conditions, an area of research that has increased in significance in the context of the changes that are being observed in climate. Specifically, the study addressed the frequency, long-term change and spatial coverage of exceptionally hot summers, and exceptionally cool summers (EHS and ECS) in Europe. The statistical criterion of plus/minus two standard deviations from the long-term average was used to identify EHS and ECS at 60 weather stations over the period . The study has demonstrated that EHS are characterised by greater temperature anomalies than ECS and are approximately twice as frequent. They occurred virtually everywhere within the study area, whilst ECS are concentrated in its northern part. Five EHS (1972, 2002, 2003, 2007, and 2010) and three ECS (1956, 1962, and 1976) were large enough to be recorded by at least 10% of the stations.