Nanostructured drugs are being approved for clinical use, although there is a serious deficit of systematic studies of these materials. Data on toxicity of nanoparticles (NPs) can vary due to different methods of preparation, size, and shape. We investigated the toxicity against cultured human cells, the acute toxicity in mice, and the influence on conjugative transfer of antibiotic resistance genes of clinically relevant NPs such as TiO2, ZrO2, HfO2, Ta2O5, Fe3O4, and AlOOH. NPs were synthesized as aqueous sols by the same method in aqueous solution, with almost identical size 2–10 nm. None of these NPs was cytotoxic at concentrations compatible with water solubility. Furthermore, TiO2, HfO2, Ta2O5, Fe3O4, and AlOOH were not toxic to mice after oral administration. However, ZrO2 showed rather high toxicity, with LD50 2277.8 mg/kg. Experiments with plasmid transfer between bacteria demonstrated that AlOOH NPs were the most hazardous since this material promoted the emergence of resistance to antibiotics. Thus, although our metal oxide NPs are largely non-toxic, their properties may differ in specific biological situations.

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Resume. In Russia, type 2 diabetes affects more than 5 % of the population. Type 2 diabetes accounts for up to 95 % of all cases of diabetes meUitus, but its pathogenetic mechanisms have not yet been fully established. Aim. To summarize and analyze the Literature data on the pathogenetic Links of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Materials and methods. When searching for material for writing a review article, abstract databases PubMed, Google Scholar, e-Library, etc. were used. The search was carried out by publications for the period 1960-2022. The following words and phrases were chosen as parameters for literature selection: pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes mellitus; insulin resistance; endothelial dysfunction; p-cells in type 2 diabetes; inflammation and diabetes, glucose utilization. Results. The article presents the concept of normal glucose metabolism, the role of the loss of functional mass of p-cells, aspects of the synthesis and metabolism of glucose by the liver, the role of muscle tissue in the consumption of glucose, as well as the role of the kidneys in the development of a vicious circle of diabetic hyperglycemia. The role of vascular and myocardial resistance to insulin, adipose inflammation, the "ominous octet" is considered. The place of insulin resistance in the development of obesity was determined, the issues of incretin effects and liver diseases associated with diabetes were raised. Conclusion. The generalized information will expand and deepen knowledge about the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes mellitus, which, in turn, will serve as a potential basis for new approaches in the treatment of one of the most common diseases of the 21st century.