In terms of origin, grasslands in Central Europe can be classified into (i) natural grasslands, predetermined by environmental conditions and wild herbivores; (ii) seminatural grasslands, associated with long-term human activity from the beginning of agriculture during the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition; and (iii) improved (intensive) grasslands, a product of modern agriculture based on sown and highly productive forage grasses and legumes. This review discusses the origin, history and development of grasslands in Central Europe from the Holocene (9500 BC) to recent times, using archaeobotanical (pollen and macroremains), archaeozoological (molluscs, dung beetles, animal bones) and archaeological evidence, together with written and iconographic resources and recent analogies. An indicator of grasslands is the ratio of non-arboreal/arboreal pollen and the presence of pollen of species such as Plantago lanceolata and Urtica dioica in sediments. Pastures can be indicated by Juniperus communis pollen and charcoal present in sediments and the soil profile. Insect-pollinated species can be studied using cesspit sediments and pollen (from honey) in vessels in graves. In Central Europe, natural steppe, alluvial grasslands and alpine grasslands occurred before the start of agriculture in the early Neolithic (5500 BC); their area was small, and grassland patches were fragmentary in the forested landscape. Substantial enlargement of grasslands cannot be expected to have occurred before the late Bronze Age. The first scythes come from the 7th-6th century BC; therefore, hay meadows probably did not develop before this time. There is evidence of hay meadows in Central Europe during the Middle Ages, documented by macroremains of Arrhenatherum elatius in sediments, written records and long scythes in archaeological assemblages. Based on macroremains analyses, we conclude that there was generally high diversity of seminatural grasslands in the cultural landscape in the Middle Ages, and individual grassland Nomenclature of vascular plants Kub at et al. (2002) Nomenclature of plant communities Chytr y (2007)

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Question: How are plant species and functional group composition, and potential sward height affected by implementation of different grazing regimes on previously abandoned seminatural grassland? Location: The Jizerské mountains, northern Czech Republic. Methods: We established a randomized block experiment with the following treatments: unmanaged control (U), intensive (IG) and extensive (EG) continuous grazing, first cut followed by intensive (ICG) and first cut followed by extensive (ECG) continuous grazing for the rest of the growing season. The percentage cover of all vascular plant species was recorded in 40 permanent plots. Results: Total plant species richness increased in all managed treatments, whereas species number was reduced in U at the end of the experiment. Tall forbs (Aegopodium podagraria, Galium album, Anthriscus sylvestris, Cirsium arvense) as well as tall grasses (Elytrigia repens and Alopecurus pratensis) were more abundant in U. Species associated with both grazing treatments (IG, EG) were Dactylis glomerata, Festuca rubra agg. and Phleum pratense. Agrostis capillaris, Taraxacum spp., Trifolium repens, Ranunculus repens and Cirsium vulgare were promoted by ECG and ICG. Abundance of tall grasses and tall forbs reflected the intensity of management in the order U>EG, ECG>IG, ICG. Prostrate forbs, on the other hand, increased their cover with increasing intensity: ICG>IG>ECG>EG. Conclusions: Plant species composition of semi-natural grasslands is affected by the defoliation regime. Continuous grazing on abandoned grassland alters the sward structure towards a permanent pasture with short, light-sensitive grasses and prostrate forbs. To maintain or enhance plant species richness in semi-natural grasslands, understanding the effects of different grazing regimes on plant species composition is necessary.

An extended rising‐plate‐meter method was used to study the spatial and temporal variability of the sward structure of extensively managed pastures over a grazing season. Two treatments of a long‐term grazing experiment with heifers were investigated: extensive continuous grazing (EG) with a target sward height of 10 cm and intensive continuous grazing (IG) with a target sward height of 5 cm. Compressed sward height and related herbage mass (HM), dominant plant species and stage of development of phenology were determined at weekly or twice weekly intervals at fixed measuring points. The results demonstrated a strong variability in sward height and HM, especially on the EG treatment. The botanical composition of the standing herbage differed between treatments and between patches of different heights within the same treatment. In areas with a short sward, the herbage was predominantly composed of Agrostis capillaris, Festuca rubra and Trifolium repens. It was more evenly composed and also included taller growing species, such as Alopecurus pratensis and Galium mollugo, in areas with a tall sward. The area potentially available for reproductive development was high in the EG treatment and low in the IG treatment. The method employed proved suitable to provide a detailed description of the dynamics of the sward structure.

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