Digenean trematodes are a large, complex group of parasitic flatworms that infect an incredible diversity of organisms, including humans. Larval development of most digeneans takes place within a snail (Gastropoda). Compatibility between snails and digeneans is often very specific, such that suitable snail hosts define the geographical ranges of diseases caused by these worms. The immune cells (hemocytes) of a snail are sentinels that act as a crucial barrier to infection by larval digeneans. Hemocytes coordinate a robust and specific immunological response, participating directly in parasite killing by encapsulating and clearing the infection. Hemocyte proliferation and differentiation are influenced by unknown digenean-specific exogenous factors. However, we know nothing about the endogenous control of hemocyte development in any gastropod model. Here, we identify and functionally characterize a progranulin [Biomphalaria glabrata granulin (BgGRN)] from the snail B. glabrata, a natural host for the human blood fluke Schistosoma mansoni. Granulins are growth factors that drive proliferation of immune cells in organisms, spanning the animal kingdom. We demonstrate that BgGRN induces proliferation of B. glabrata hemocytes, and specifically drives the production of an adherent hemocyte subset that participates centrally in the anti-digenean defense response. Additionally, we demonstrate that susceptible B. glabrata snails can be made resistant to infection with S. mansoni by first inducing hemocyte proliferation with BgGRN. This marks the functional characterization of an endogenous growth factor of a gastropod mollusc, and provides direct evidence of gain of resistance in a snail-digenean infection model using a defined factor to induce snail resistance to infection.

A variety of resources exist for cross-cultural educators, providing how-to tips addressing attitudes and methodologies for the teaching process. The focus of L Lynn Thigpen's unique and valuable book, Connected Learning: How Adults with Limited Formal Education Learn, asks the deeper and more significant questions that concern the learning process of the cross-cultural learner. The author points out a disturbing "grave inequity in the learning realm" (p. xvii) for a majority of the world who are "adults with limited formal education" (ALFE) (p. 6). As a result, Thigpen considers Walter Ong (Orality and Literacy, 2002) and the growing literature on orality, challenging the adoption of oral methods of teaching as a strategy for communicating information to learners who are not functionally literate. By pushing orality into a broader scope of "general learning strategy" (p. 7) or "learning format" (p. 144), the author ties orality to a learning process that has relational significance for the communicators of information-a value which emerges as her central theme of "connected learning" (p. 100).As a long-term worker in Cambodia with the International Mission Board, Thigpen uses her field experience as the ethnographic basis for researching how Cambodian Khmer ALFE, as oral learners, learn best. The author collects and analyzes data discovered through observation and interviews with numerous Khmer contacts to develop grounded theories on how her ALFE "learn or acquire new knowledge, beliefs/values, or skills" (p. 78). Thigpen's personal investment in and concern for her learners is apparent, and research helps her to recognize her own need for "empathy" (p. 150) in order to connect to and better understand her learners. Thigpen's findings provide a fascinating introduction into Khmer culture and history as she gathers quotations and knowledge from interviews with her study participants. My personal overseas experience has been primarily in Africa, and I found myself wanting to know more background on Cambodian culture and the Khmer people, partly from curiosity but more importantly to be

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