The mechanisms generating precise connections between specific thalamic nuclei and cortical areas remain poorly understood. Using axon tracing analysis of ephrin/Eph mutant mice, we provide in vivo evidence that Eph receptors in the thalamus and ephrins in the cortex control intra-areal topographic mapping of thalamocortical (TC) axons. In addition, we show that the same ephrin/Eph genes unexpectedly control the inter-areal specificity of TC projections through the early topographic sorting of TC axons in an intermediate target, the ventral telencephalon. Our results constitute the first identification of guidance cues involved in inter-areal specificity of TC projections and demonstrate that the same set of mapping labels is used differentially for the generation of topographic specificity of TC projections between and within individual cortical areas.

Mechanisms controlling brain size include the regulation of neural progenitor cell proliferation, differentiation, survival and migration. Here we show that ephrin-A/EphA receptor signalling plays a key role in controlling the size of the mouse cerebral cortex by regulating cortical progenitor cell apoptosis. In vivo gain of EphA receptor function, achieved through ectopic expression of ephrin-A5 in early cortical progenitors expressing EphA7, caused a transient wave of neural progenitor cell apoptosis, resulting in premature depletion of progenitors and a subsequent dramatic decrease in cortical size. In vitro treatment with soluble ephrin-A ligands similarly induced the rapid death of cultured dissociated cortical progenitors in a caspase-3-dependent manner, thereby confirming a direct effect of ephrin/Eph signalling on apoptotic cascades. Conversely, in vivo loss of EphA function, achieved through EphA7 gene disruption, caused a reduction in apoptosis occurring normally in forebrain neural progenitors, resulting in an increase in cortical size and, in extreme cases, exencephalic forebrain overgrowth. Together, these results identify ephrin/Eph signalling as a physiological trigger for apoptosis that can alter brain size and shape by regulating the number of neural progenitors.

Biochemical studies have suggested conflicting roles for the E3 ubiquitin ligase constitutive photomorphogenesis protein 1 (Cop1; also known as Rfwd2) in tumorigenesis, providing evidence for both the oncoprotein c-Jun and the tumor suppressor p53 as its targets. Here we present what we believe to be the first in vivo investigation of the role of Cop1 in cancer etiology. Using an innovative genetic approach to generate an allelic series of Cop1, we found that Cop1 hypomorphic mice spontaneously developed malignancy at a high frequency in the first year of life and were highly susceptible to radiation-induced lymphomagenesis. Further analysis revealed that c-Jun was a key physiological target for Cop1 and that Cop1 constitutively kept c-Jun at low levels in vivo and thereby modulated c-Jun/AP-1 transcriptional activity. Importantly, Cop1 deficiency stimulated cell proliferation in a c-Jun-dependent manner. Focal deletions of COP1 were observed at significant frequency across several cancer types, and COP1 loss was determined to be one of the mechanisms leading to c-Jun upregulation in human cancer. We therefore conclude that Cop1 is a tumor suppressor that functions, at least in part, by antagonizing c-Jun oncogenic activity. In the absence of evidence for a genetic interaction between Cop1 and p53, our data strongly argue against the use of Cop1-inhibitory drugs for cancer therapy. IntroductionThe turnover and the activity of several key oncoproteins and tumor suppressors are controlled by the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS). The UPS comprises two discrete steps: the covalent attachment of multiple ubiquitin molecules to the protein substrate and degradation of the polyubiquitylated protein by the 26S proteasome complex. The first step is mediated by at least three enzymes: the ubiquitin-activating enzyme E1, the ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2, and the ubiquitin ligase E3. Few reports have linked E1 and E2 to cancer development; in contrast, cumulative evidence indicates alterations in the activity of some E3 ligases in the etiology of human malignancies (1). Because E3 ligases are the specific recognition element of the system and are themselves potentially "drugable'" enzymes, they can serve as potential cancer targets as well as cancer biomarkers.A direct molecular link between deregulation of E3 ligase activity and cancer is illustrated by the well-described oncogenic activity of the RING finger-containing protein Mdm2. In physiological conditions, Mdm2 directly binds the p53 tumor suppressor protein and via its RING finger domain acts as an E3 ligase to promote p53 ubiquitylation and proteasomal degradation (2). In tumors, p53 function is altered either by inactivating mutations of the TP53 gene itself or as the result of aberrant expression and/or func-

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