Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR), ligand-activated transcription factors of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily, have been identified as key metabolic regulators in the liver, skeletal muscle, and adipose tissue, among others. As a leading cause of liver disease worldwide, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) cause a significant burden worldwide and therapeutic strategies are needed. This review provides an overview of the evidence on PPAR-targeted treatment of NAFLD and NASH in individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus. We considered current evidence from clinical trials and observational studies as well as the impact of treatment on comorbid metabolic conditions such as obesity, dyslipidemia, and cardiovascular disease. Future areas of research, such as possible sexually dimorphic effects of PPAR-targeted therapies, are briefly reviewed.

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Dear Editors, oral lichen planus (OLP) is an autoimmune-mediated inflammatory disease of the oral cavity with an estimated global prevalence of about 1.0 % [1]. Mildly affected individuals may only display the characteristic clinical features, that is, Wickham's striae of the oral mucosa, but are otherwise asymptomatic. However, certain patients may suffer from moderate to severe pain that interferes with food intake and dental hygiene [2]. Furthermore, patients with OLP are more likely to develop oral squamous cell carcinoma with a recently reported malignant transformation rate of 2.3 % [3]. Apremilast, a well-tolerated phosphodiesterase-4-inhibitor, was shown to be effective in some difficult-to-treat OLP cases (six patients in total) [4][5][6][7].In this retrospective, multicenter cohort study, performed in three European tertiary referral hospitals (