Double stranded RNA (dsRNA) exhibits severe degradation within 3 days in live soil, limiting its potential application in crop protection. Herein we report the efficient binding, protection, and self-release of dsRNA in live soil through the usage of a cationic polymer. Soil stability assays show that linear poly­(2-(dimethylamino)­ethyl acrylate) can delay the degradation of dsRNA by up to 1 week while the star shaped analogue showed an increased stabilization of dsRNA by up to 3 weeks. Thus, the architecture of the polymer can significantly affect the lifetime of dsRNA in soil. In addition, the hydrolysis and dsRNA binding and release profiles of these polymers were carefully evaluated and discussed. Importantly, hydrolysis could occur independently of environmental conditions (e.g., different pH, different temperature) showing the potential for many opportunities in agrochemicals where protection and subsequent self-release of dsRNA in live soil is required.

This study describes the facile, controllable production of nanohydroxyapatite (HA), with sheet, rod, or tube morphology, using a continuous-flow hydrothermal reactor. We also demonstrate the synthesis of parascholzite, a mineral rarely described, using the same reactor. Cell viability assays show that HA generated in our reactor have no cytotoxic effects on mouse embryonic stem cells (mESC).

Phosphonium salt-containing polymers have very recently started to emerge as attractive materials for the engineering non-viral gene delivery systems. Compared to more frequently utilised ammonium-based polymers, some of these materials can enhance binding of nucleic acid at lower polymer concentration, and mediate good transfections efficiency, with low cytotoxicity. However, for years one of the main hurdles for their widespread application has been the lack of general routes for their synthesis. To date a range of polymerisation techniques have been explored, with the majority of them focussing on radical polymerisation, especially controlled radical polymerisation (CRP) techniques -ATRP, NMP and RAFT polymerisation -both by polymerisation of phosphonium monomers or by post-polymerisation modification of polymer intermediates. This review article aims at discussing key differences and similarities between phosphonium-and other analogous cations, how these affect binding to polynucleotides, and will provide an overview of the phosphonium polymer systems that have been utilised for gene delivery.

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