An analysis of the literature was the basis for a set of predictions regarding the Preschool Embedded Figures Test performance of a small, cross-sectional sample of 37 3- to 5-year-old children. The test scores were modestly reliable. Predicted age-related differences in scores for boys and girls were observed, including an interaction of age with gender; however, other predictions regarding those scores were not supported. Based on a small sample, it was tentatively concluded that the evidence for continued use of the Preschool Embedded Figures Test as a measure of field independence for young children was weak.

This study examines children's abilities 1) to learn to program with a single keystroke, ten command Logo system enabling them to produce multiple command sequences to solve on-screen problems, 2) to learn two new strategies (direct and indirect route strategies) requiring the use of two levels of programming difficulty measured via average times, keystrokes, and errors, 3) to transfer screen-based Logo training to the solution of spatial problems in another learning setting, and 4) to demonstrate whether there are any individual differences in the effectiveness of Logo learning for children who have different learning orientations (field independent versus field dependent and/or reflective versus impulsive). Twenty-four four- and five-year-old children served as subjects in the study. Data from the study showed: 1) that mastery of the Logo language is not a necessary condition for young children to think and problem-solve within a Logo environment, 2) that successful problem-solving within a Logo environment is predicated on a child's use of an age-appropriate Logo programming system, 3) that even very young children can be taught spatial-conceptual strategies with which to operate within a Logo environment, 4) that young children can transfer Logo-environment knowledge to other problem-solving settings, and 5) that field independent children seem to have a slight advantage both in their initial learning of Logo and in their transfer of Logo learning to another problem-solving setting. Some of the present results are interpreted according to Watson and Busch's model of the development of Logo programming and problem-solving skills in children [1].

Preschool children's preferential selection and recall of words presented in a computer microworld was assessed as a function of action and sound. Forty preschoolers, equally distributed by sex, were randomly assigned to one of four versions of a microworld. Within each version, twenty-four sprite objects were randomly assigned properties of action and sound. The design was counterbalanced so that across the four versions, each sprite assumed all possible factorial combinations of action and sound. As expected, children preferentially selected and later recalled more words presented with action than words presented without action. Although children selected sounds, sounds interfered with children's recall of linguistic information. Results support an action superiority hypothesis and an auditory interference hypothesis. The practical application is to use action as an integral component of educational computer software designed for young children.

Children's recall of words presented on a computer was assessed as a function of action and verbal labels. Eighty children, equally distributed by grades kindergarten and second and by high and low reading ability levels, interacted with different versions of a computer presentation. Within versions, words were presented with varying levels of visual action and verbal labels. Older children recalled more words than did younger children. For the second graders, action presentation increased the poor readers' verbal recall to the level of their better reading peers. The findings suggest that older children who have difficulty reading may well benefit from visual emphasis of computer content.

The effects of microworld microcomputer training on sorting behaviors of 124 twoand three-year-old male and female day care children were studied. Subjects were divided into two age groups (mean ages were 2.5 and 3.0 years) and then into three treatment groups (microworld, real world, and combination) and a control group (no intervention). All treatment groups received one and one-half training hours on an inside/outside a house sorting task using ten familiar, age-appropriate objects. All subjects were pretested and posttested, To assess learning transfer, the posttest included objects on which the children were both trained and untrained. Findings from a 2 x 4 ANCOVA showed a significant age group difference on posttest objects for which children were not trained (p = .0317) and a near significant trend on objects for which the children were trained (p =.0654). Three-year-olds learned better than two-year-olds (p = .0001), with learning increasing over time. One-third of the three-year-olds manipulated the oomputer and task independently. The abstract microcomputer task was shown to be no more difficult for young children than was the concrete doll house task.A number of researchers have called for a period of intensive testing to determine the proper role for the microcomputer in early childhood education [1][2][3]. Data are currently available to show that young children can manipulate the standard microcomputer configuration [4-10], work successfully alone or in small groups [5,8,11,12], manage meaningful microcomputer tasks as young as two to three years of age [8,[12][13][14][15][16], operate and learn from computer