Ultrasound imaging is a dynamic imaging technique that uses high‐frequency sound waves to capture live images of the structures beneath the skin. In addition to its growing use in diagnosis and interventions, ultrasound imaging has the potential to reinforce concepts in the undergraduate medical curriculum. However, research assessing the impact of ultrasound on anatomy learning and student cognition is scarce. The purpose of this study was to compare the impact of ultrasound‐based instruction versus narrated videos on students' understanding of anatomical relationships, as well as the role of intrinsic motivation, self‐efficacy beliefs, and students' attitudes in this process. A booster course on anterior leg and wrist anatomy was offered to second‐year medical students. A randomized controlled trial with a cross‐over design allocated students to either an ultrasound‐based teaching condition (cohort A) or a narrated anatomy video condition (cohort B). Next, participants were crossed to the alternative intervention. At the start of the study (T0), baseline anatomy knowledge, intrinsic motivation, self‐efficacy beliefs, and spatial ability were measured. After the first intervention (T1) and at the end of the study (T2), both cohorts were administered an anatomy test, an intrinsic motivation scale, and a self‐efficacy scale. In addition, each student was asked to fill out a perception survey after the ultrasound intervention. Finally, building on the cross‐over design, the most optimal sequence of interventions was examined. A total of 181 students participated (cohort A: n = 82, cohort B: n = 99). Both cohorts performed comparably on the baseline anatomy knowledge test, spatial ability test, intrinsic motivation, and self‐efficacy scale. At T1, cohort B outperformed cohort A on the anatomy test (p = 0.019), although only a small effect size could be detected (Cohen's d = 0.34). Intrinsic motivation and self‐efficacy of both cohorts were similar at T1. At T2, the anatomy test, intrinsic motivation, and self‐efficacy scale did not reflect an effect after studying either sequence of the interventions. Students reported favorably about the ultrasound experience, but also mentioned a steep learning curve. Medical students found the hands‐on ultrasound sessions to be valuable, increasing their interest in musculoskeletal anatomy and ultrasound imaging. However, the addition of ultrasound did not result in superior spatial anatomy understanding compared to watching anatomy videos. In addition, ultrasound teaching did not have a major effect on student cognition. Ultrasound‐based teaching of musculoskeletal anatomy is regarded as difficult to learn, and therefore it is hypothesized that too high levels of cognitive load might explain the presented results.

Background Over the past few years, anatomy education has been revolutionized through digital media, resulting in innovative computer‐based 3D models to supplement or even replace traditional learning materials. However, the added value of these models in terms of learning performance remains unclear. Multiple mechanisms may contribute to the inconclusive findings. This study focusses on the impact of active manipulation on learning performance and the influence that posttest design features may have on the outcome measurement. Methods Participants were randomly assigned to one of two research conditions: studying on the base of a computer‐based manipulable pelvic bone model versus online static images of the same model. Pretests focused on students' baseline anatomy knowledge and spatial ability. Three knowledge posttests were administered: a test based on a physical pelvic bone model, and two computer‐based tests based on static images and a manipulable model. Mental effort was measured with the Paas mental effort rating scale. Results In the static images‐based posttest, significantly higher knowledge scores were attained by participants studying in the static images research condition (p = 0.043). No other significant knowledge‐related differences could be observed. In the manipulable model‐based posttest, spatial ability rather than the research condition seemed to have an influential role on the outcome scores (r = 0.18, p = 0.049). Mental effort scores reflected no difference between both research conditions. Conclusion The research results are counter‐intuitive, especially because no significant differences were found in the physical model‐based posttest in students who studied with the manipulable model. Explaining the results builds on differences in anatomical models requiring less or more active manipulation to process spatial information. The pelvic bone manipulable model, and by extension osteology models, might be insufficiently complex to provide added value compared with static images. Moreover, the posttest modality should be chosen with care since spatial ability rather than anatomy knowledge may be measured.

BackgroundThe use of cadaveric resources in anatomy teaching is believed to be unsurpassed up until now. Dissection has historically been the cornerstone of anatomy teaching and for long the only method available for students to appreciate spatial relationships within the complex body system. Over the last few decades, varying degrees of prosections have been included as a modality for learning anatomy as it is believed to be equally effective and more efficient in terms of cost and time compared to dissection (Pather, 2020). Yet, while cadaveric resources provide a rich environment for teaching anatomy, the educational environment is changing.Advances in technology, as well as practical constraints such as reductions in curricular time, increasing class sizes, rising costs, lack of trained anatomy faculty, and shortage of deceased donors, have led to the marginalization of dissection as a teaching/learning tool in the modern medical curriculum in many parts of the world (Ghosh, 2017). Furthermore, in some countries, cultural and ethical

Detailed anatomical models can be produced with three‐dimensional (3D) scanning techniques and as such be digitally preserved, archived and subsequently rendered through various media. Here, a novel methodology is presented for combining and matching scan geometry with radiographic imaging. The technique encompasses joining layers of 3D surface scans in an anatomical correct spatial relationship. To do so, a computed tomography (CT) volume is used as template to join and merge different surface scan geometries by means of non‐rigid registration into a single environment. This results in a digital model that can be used in multiple digital learning environments. Finally, as computational expense is usually the main bottleneck in extended 3D applications, the influence of mesh simplification in combination with texture mapping on the quality of 3D models was investigated. The fidelity of the simplified meshes was evaluated in relation to their resolution and with respect to key anatomical features. Large‐ and medium‐scale features were well preserved despite extensive 3D mesh simplification. Subtle fine‐scale features, particular in curved areas demonstrated the major limitation to extensive mesh size reduction. Depending on the local topography, workable mesh sizes ranging from 10% to 3% of the original size could be obtained, making them usable in various learning applications and environments.