We had previously proposed the presence of permanent stimulatory influences in the tissue microenvironment surrounding the aged mesenteric lymphatic vessels (MLV), which influence aged lymphatic function. In this study, we performed immunohistochemical labeling of proteins known to be present in mast cells (mast cell tryptase, c-kit, prostaglandin D(2) synthase, histidine decarboxylase, histamine, transmembrane protein 16A, and TNF-α) with double verification of mast cells in the same segment of rat mesentery containing MLV by labeling with Alexa Fluor 488-conjugated avidin followed by toluidine blue staining. Additionally, we evaluated the aging-associated changes in the number of mast cells located by MLV and in their functional status by inducing mast cell activation by various activators (substance P; anti-rat DNP Immunoglobulin E; peptidoglycan from Staphyloccus aureus and compound 48/80) in the presence of ruthenium red followed by subsequent staining by toluidine blue. We found that there was a 27% aging-associated increase in the total number of mast cells, with an ∼400% increase in the number of activated mast cells in aged mesenteric tissue in resting conditions with diminished ability of mast cells to be newly activated in the presence of inflammatory or chemical stimuli. We conclude that higher degree of preactivation of mast cells in aged mesenteric tissue is important for development of aging-associated impairment of function of mesenteric lymphatic vessels. The limited number of intact aged mast cells located close to the mesenteric lymphatic compartments to react to the presence of acute stimuli may be considered contributory to the aging-associated deteriorations in immune response.

The microvascular endothelium serves as the major barrier that controls the transport of blood constituents across the vessel wall. Barrier leakage occurs during infection or sterile inflammation, allowing plasma fluid and cells to extravasate and accumulate in surrounding tissues, an important pathology underlying a variety of infectious diseases and immune disorders. The leak process is triggered and regulated by bidirectional communications between circulating cells and vascular cells at the blood-vessel interface. While the molecular mechanisms underlying this complex process remain incompletely understood, emerging evidence supports the roles of neutrophil-endothelium interaction and neutrophil-derived products, including neutrophil extracellular traps and vesicles, in the pathogenesis of vascular barrier injury. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on neutrophil-induced changes in endothelial barrier structures, with a detailed presentation of recently characterized molecular pathways involved in the production and effects of neutrophil extracellular traps and extracellular vesicles. Additionally, we discuss the therapeutic implications of altering neutrophil interactions with the endothelial barrier in treating inflammatory diseases.

Abstract-Preeclampsia may result from overactivation of the maternal immune system and is characterized by endothelial dysfunction and excessive inflammation. Given the importance of maternal immune system regulation and antiinflammatory cytokines in normotensive pregnancies, we hypothesized that maternal immune system activation via Toll-like receptor 3 during pregnancy would cause preeclampsia-like symptoms in mice, which would be made worse by deficiency of the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin 10. The Toll-like receptor 3 agonist polyinosinepolycytidylic acid (poly I:C) caused hypertension, endothelial dysfunction, and proteinuria in mice only when pregnant.In the absence of poly I:C, pregnant interleukin 10 knockout mice exhibited a significant increase in systolic blood pressure, endothelial dysfunction, and serum proinflammatory cytokines, as well as aortic and placental platelet-endothelial cell adhesion molecule expression compared with pregnant wild-type mice. Deficiency of interleukin 10 further augmented these measures in poly I:C-treated pregnant mice. In addition, sera from poly I:C-treated pregnant wild-type mice significantly decreased relaxation responses and increased platelet-endothelial cell adhesion molecule expression in isolated aortas from nonpregnant wild-type mice, and these effects were augmented by sera from poly I:C-treated interleukin 10 knockout mice. Coincubation with recombinant interleukin 10 normalized relaxation responses and platelet-endothelial cell adhesion molecule expression in all of the groups. Collectively, Toll-like receptor 3 activation during pregnancy causes preeclampsia-like symptoms, which are exacerbated by the absence of interleukin 10. Exogenous interleukin 10 treatment had beneficial effects on endothelial function and may be beneficial in women with preeclampsia. Key Words: interleukin 10 Ⅲ endothelium Ⅲ hypertension Ⅲ pregnancy-induced Ⅲ inflammation Ⅲ pregnancy Ⅲ preeclampsia H ypertensive disorders of pregnancy, such as preeclampsia (PE), affect Ϸ10% of all pregnancies, are one of the leading causes of fetal morbidity and mortality, and cause 15% to 20% of maternal deaths worldwide. 1 PE is diagnosed by new-onset hypertension and proteinuria during pregnancy and is associated with endothelial dysfunction, excessive inflammation, and abnormal fetal development. [2][3][4][5] Although the etiology of PE remains unknown, evidence strongly supports a role for the maternal immune system. 6 PE is more common in women with autoimmune diseases and during the first conception, and conversely, the incidence of PE is decreased in women with immune deficiency

Objectives The knowledge of the basic principles of lymphatic function, still remains, to a large degree, rudimentary and will require significant research efforts. Recent studies of the physiology of the mesenteric lymphatic vessels (MLVs) suggested the presence of an endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF) other than nitric oxide. In this study we tested the hypothesis that lymphatic endothelium-derived histamine relaxes MLVs. Methods We measured and analyzed parameters of lymphatic contractility in isolated and pressurized rat mesenteric lymphatic vessels under control conditions and after pharmacological blockade of nitric oxide by Nω-Nitro-L-arginine methyl ester hydrochloride (L-NAME, 100 μM) or/and histamine production by α-methyl-DL-histidine dihydrochloride (α-MHD, 10 μM). Effectiveness of α-MHD was confirmed immunohistochemically. We also used immunohistochemical labeling and western blot analysis of the histamine-producing enzyme, histidine decarboxylase (HDC). Additionally we blocked HDC protein expression in MLVs by transient transfection with vivo-morpholino oligos. Results We found that only combined pharmacological blockade of nitric oxide and histamine production completely eliminates flow-dependent relaxation of lymphatic vessels, thus confirming a role for histamine as an EDRF in MLVs. We also confirmed the presence of histidine decarboxylase and histamine inside lymphatic endothelial cells. Conclusions Our study supports a role for histamine as an EDRF in MLVs.

Aberrant elevation in the levels of the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-1b (IL-1b) contributes to neuroinflammatory diseases. Blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction is a hallmark phenotype of neuroinflammation. It is known that IL-1b directly induces BBB hyperpermeability but the mechanisms remain unclear. Claudin-5 (Cldn5) is a tight junction protein found at endothelial cell-cell contacts that are crucial for maintaining brain microvascular endothelial cell (BMVEC) integrity. Transcriptional regulation of Cldn5 has been attributed to the transcription factors b-catenin and forkhead box protein O1 (FoxO1), and the signaling molecules regulating their nuclear translocation. Non-muscle myosin light chain kinase (nmMlck, encoded by the Mylk gene) is a key regulator involved in endothelial hyperpermeability, and IL-1b has been shown to mediate nmMlck-dependent barrier dysfunction in epithelia. Considering these factors, we tested the hypothesis that nmMlck modulates IL-1b-mediated downregulation of Cldn5 in BMVECs in a manner that depends on transcriptional repression mediated by b-catenin and FoxO1. We found that treating BMVECs with IL-1b induced barrier dysfunction concomitantly with the nuclear translocation of b-catenin and FoxO1 and the repression of Cldn5. Most importantly, using primary BMVECs isolated from mice null for nmMlck, we identified that Cldn5 repression caused by b-catenin and FoxO1 in IL-1b-mediated barrier dysfunction was dependent on nmMlck.