There is a long scientific tradition of examining the similarities between language and music (Darwin, 1871;Patel, 2008). Studying commonalities between how language and musical sounds are processed affords more opportunities to learn about how we interact with the auditory environment than are available from studying either domain in isolation (Callan et al., 2006;Koelsch et al., 2009;Kraus & Banai, 2007;Patel, 2009;Peretz & Zatorre, 2005;Wong, Skoe, Russo, Dees, & Kraus, 2007). In the present article, we compare the serial recall of speech and music from short-term memory.The first reason for choosing short-term memory for a language-music comparison is that much is known about the operation of auditory-verbal serial recall. For simplicity, we present our studies within a single broad theoretical framework-the multicomponent workingmemory model (Baddeley, 2000;Baddeley & Hitch, 1974)-although we acknowledge that they could be fitted into other frameworks developed to explain processing in short-term memory. The working-memory model comprises an attention-controlling central executive and three subsystems: the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer. The phonological loop is associated with the processing of speechlike information. It comprises a passive phonological store, which acts as a temporary holding center for speech-based information, and an articulatory rehearsal process, during which incoming visual information can be recoded and rehearsed using a phonological code (Baddeley, 2007). In the present research, we question whether the phonological loop also may be capable of processing musical stimuli.A second reason for focusing the language-music comparison within short-term memory is the importance of verbal short-term memory for a range of higher cognitive abilities. These include the acquisition of vocabulary and grammar (Baddeley, Papagno, & Vallar, 1988;Gathercole & Baddeley, 1990), reading (Baddeley, Gathercole, & Papagno, 1998), and action control (Baddeley, Chincotta, & Adlam, 2001;Liefooghe, Barouillet, Vandierendonck, & Camos, 2008;Miyake et al., 2000). An empirical investigation of language and music processing in shortterm memory therefore has the potential to encourage investigations into the role of musical short-term memory in equivalent domain cognitive abilities (e.g., reading music Language-music comparative studies have highlighted the potential for shared resources or neural overlap in auditory short-term memory. However, there is a lack of behavioral methodologies for comparing verbal and musical serial recall. We developed a visual grid response that allowed both musicians and nonmusicians to perform serial recall of letter and tone sequences. The new method was used to compare the phonological similarity effect with the impact of an operationalized musical equivalent-pitch proximity. Over the course of three experiments, we found that short-term memory for tones had several similarities to verbal memory, including limited capacity and a significant ...

Involuntary Musical Imagery (INMI) or "earworms" describes the experience whereby a tune comes into the mind and repeats without conscious control. The present article uses an inductive, generative, grounded theory-based qualitative analysis to classify reports of everyday INMI circumstances, and creates graphical models that determine their relative frequency within two population samples; listeners to the BBC radio station 6 Music and an online survey. Within the two models, four abstract categories were defined that described the characteristics of the circumstances surrounding the onset of INMI episodes; Music exposure, Memory triggers, Affective states, and Low attention states respectively. We also note the variety of musical media by which exposure to a tune results in an INMI episode and discuss the impact of musical engagement on INMI experiences. The findings of the present study are considered within a framework of involuntary retrieval theory from both the autobiographical and semantic memory literatures. In addition, the results highlight the potential facilitative effects of varying affective and attentional states on INMI episodes. Keywords affective states, attention states, everyday music listening, involuntary autobiographical/semantic memory (IAM/ISM), involuntary musical imagery (INMI)

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This report comprises 3 studies that delineate the development and validation of the Involuntary Musical Imagery Scale (IMIS) based on data from 2,646 individuals. This new self-report inventory measures individual differences in involuntary musical imagery ("INMI," commonly referred to as "earworms"). The first study involved exploratory factor analysis, leading to the identification of a 4-factor scale structure. The 4 factors are conceived as "Negative Valence," "Movement," "Personal Reflections," and "Help." The second study confirmed this factor structure on an independent sample and derived indices of internal validity and test-retest reliability. The third study reports on IMIS correlates with existing measures of thinking style, imagery abilities, and music-related behaviors. Results showed that the IMIS measures a unique construct compared with existing self-report inventories. Furthermore, significant correlations were found with a combination of self-reported musical behaviors on the one hand and tendencies to engage in task-unrelated thoughts on the other. Overall, these findings provide evidence that IMIS constitutes a reliable scale that captures individual differences in INMI and that its first application reveals previously uncaptured associations between INMI and certain cognitive and behavioral traits.