Characterizing the fitness landscape, a representation of fitness for a large set of genotypes, is key to understanding how genetic information is interpreted to create functional organisms. Here we determined the evolutionarily-relevant segment of the fitness landscape of His3, a gene coding for an enzyme in the histidine synthesis pathway, focusing on combinations of amino acid states found at orthologous sites of extant species. Just 15% of amino acids found in yeast His3 orthologues were always neutral while the impact on fitness of the remaining 85% depended on the genetic background. Furthermore, at 67% of sites, amino acid replacements were under sign epistasis, having both strongly positive and negative effect in different genetic backgrounds. 46% of sites were under reciprocal sign epistasis. The fitness impact of amino acid replacements was influenced by only a few genetic backgrounds but involved interaction of multiple sites, shaping a rugged fitness landscape in which many of the shortest paths between highly fit genotypes are inaccessible.

Biases of DNA repair can shape the nucleotide landscape of genomes at evolutionary timescales. However, such biases have not yet been measured in chromatin for lack of technologies. Here we develop a genome-wide assay whereby the same DNA lesion is repaired in different chromatin contexts. We insert thousands of barcoded transposons carrying a reporter of DNA mismatch repair in the genome of mouse embryonic stem cells. Upon inducing a double-strand break between tandem repeats, a mismatch is generated when the single strand annealing repair pathway is used. Surprisingly, the mismatch repair machinery favors the same strand 60-80% of the time. The location of the lesion in the genome and the type of mismatch have little influence on the repair bias in this context. Using machine learning, we further show that both the repair bias and the efficiency of the repair are independent of known chromatin features. These results suggest that some intrinsic property of the lesion can have a large influence on the outcome of DNA repair, irrespective of the surrounding chromatin context.Recent insight into this question came from cancer genome sequencing (Pleasance et al . 2010;Hoadley et al . 2014) . In particular, this made it possible to show that the mismatch repair system in healthy cells is more accurate at some loci than others. For instance, mismatches in late-replicating regions are repaired less efficiently (Supek and Lehner 2015) , a feature that seems to be shared among eukaryotes (Weber, Pink, and Hurst 2012) . It is presently unknown whether the chromatin context can bias the mismatch repair toward one nucleotide or another, mostly because it is difficult to tease apart the contributions of DNA damage and DNA repair to mutation patterns.

Background Biases of DNA repair can shape the nucleotide landscape of genomes at evolutionary timescales. The molecular mechanisms of those biases are still poorly understood because it is difficult to isolate the contributions of DNA repair from those of DNA damage. Results Here, we develop a genome-wide assay whereby the same DNA lesion is repaired in different genomic contexts. We insert thousands of barcoded transposons carrying a reporter of DNA mismatch repair in the genome of mouse embryonic stem cells. Upon inducing a double-strand break between tandem repeats, a mismatch is generated if the break is repaired through single-strand annealing. The resolution of the mismatch showed a 60–80% bias in favor of the strand with the longest 3′ flap. The location of the lesion in the genome and the type of mismatch had little influence on the bias. Instead, we observe a complete reversal of the bias when the longest 3′ flap is moved to the opposite strand by changing the position of the double-strand break in the reporter. Conclusions These results suggest that the processing of the double-strand break has a major influence on the repair of mismatches during a single-strand annealing.

Animals utilize visual motion cues to maintain stability and navigate accurately. The optomotor response, a reflexive behavior for visual stabilization, has been used to study this visuomotor transformation. However, there is a disparity between the simplicity of this behavior and the intricate circuit components believed to govern it. Here we bridge this divide by exploring the course control repertoire in Drosophila and establishing a direct link between behavior and the underlying circuit motifs. Specifically, we demonstrate that visual motion information from both eyes plays a crucial role in movement control through bilateral interactions facilitated by gap junctions. These electrical interactions augment the classic stabilization behavior by inverting the response direction and the behavioral strategy. Our findings reveal how animals combine monocular motion cues to generate a variety of behaviors, determine the functional role of the circuit components, and show that gap junctions can mediate non-linear operations with a decisive role in animal behavior.