Thyroid cancer is a common endocrine malignancy that encompasses well-differentiated as well as dedifferentiated cancer types. The latter tumors have high mortality and lack effective therapies. Using a paired-end RNA-sequencing approach, we report the discovery of rearrangements involving the anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) gene in thyroid cancer. The most common of these involves a fusion between ALK and the striatin (STRN ) gene, which is the result of a complex rearrangement involving the short arm of chromosome 2. STRN-ALK leads to constitutive activation of ALK kinase via dimerization mediated by the coiled-coil domain of STRN and to a kinase-dependent, thyroid-stimulating hormoneindependent proliferation of thyroid cells. Moreover, expression of STRN-ALK transforms cells in vitro and induces tumor formation in nude mice. The kinase activity of STRN-ALK and the ALKinduced cell growth can be blocked by the ALK inhibitors crizotinib and TAE684. In addition to well-differentiated papillary cancer, STRN-ALK was found with a higher prevalence in poorly differentiated and anaplastic thyroid cancers, and it did not overlap with other known driver mutations in these tumors. Our data demonstrate that STRN-ALK fusion occurs in a subset of patients with highly aggressive types of thyroid cancer and provide initial evidence suggesting that it may represent a therapeutic target for these patients.

Background Our previous analysis of papillary thyroid carcinomas (PTC) from the Ukrainian-American cohort exposed to 131I from the Chernobyl accident found RET/PTC rearrangements and other driver mutations in 60% of tumors. Methods In this study, we analyzed the remaining, mutation-negative tumors using RNA-Seq and RT-PCR to identify novel chromosomal rearrangements and characterize their relationship with radiation dose. Results The ETV6-NTRK3 rearrangement was identified by RNA-Seq in a tumor from a patient who received a high 131I dose. Overall, it was detected in 9/62 (14.5%) of post-Chernobyl and in 3/151 (2%) of sporadic PTCs (p=0.019). The most common fusion type was between exon 4 of ETV6 and exon 14 of NTRK3. The ETV6-NTRK3 prevalence in post-Chernobyl PTCs was associated with increasing 131I dose, albeit at borderline significance (p=0.126). The group of rearrangement-positive PTCs (ETV6-NTRK3, RET/PTC, PAX8-PPARγ) was associated with significantly higher dose response compared to the group of PTCs with point mutations (BRAF, RAS) (p<0.001). In vitro exposure of human thyroid cells to 1 Gy of 131I and γ-radiation resulted in the formation of ETV6-NTRK3 with a rate of 7.9 × 10−6 and 3.0 ×10−6 cells, respectively. Conclusions We report here the occurrence of ETV6-NTRK3 rearrangements in thyroid cancer and show that this rearrangement is significantly more common in tumors associated with exposure to 131I and has a borderline significant dose response. Moreover, ETV6-NTRK3 can be directly induced in thyroid cells by ionizing radiation in vitro and therefore may represent a novel mechanism of radiation-induced carcinogenesis.

Thyroid cancer is the most common type of endocrine malignancy, encompassing tumors with various levels of invasive growth and aggressiveness. Rap1GAP, a Rap1 GTPase-activating protein, inhibits the RAS superfamily protein Rap1 by facilitating hydrolysis of GTP to GDP. In this study, we analyzed 197 thyroid tumor samples and showed that Rap1GAP was frequently lost or downregulated in various types of tumors, particularly in the most invasive and aggressive forms of thyroid cancer. The downregulation was due to promoter hypermethylation and/or loss of heterozygosity, found in the majority of thyroid tumors. Treatment with demethylating agent 5-aza-deoxycytidine and/or histone deacetylation inhibitor trichostatin A induced gene reexpression in thyroid cells. A genetic polymorphism, Y609C, was seen in 7% of thyroid tumors but was not related to gene downregulation. Loss of Rap1GAP expression correlated with tumor invasiveness but not with specific mutations activating the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. Rap1GAP downregulation was required in vitro for cell migration and Matrigel invasion. Recovery of Rap1GAP expression inhibited thyroid cell proliferation and colony formation. Overall, our findings indicate that epigenetic or genetic loss of Rap1GAP is very common in thyroid cancer, where these events are sufficient to promote cell proliferation and invasion. Cancer Res; 70(4); 1389-97. ©2010 AACR.

We identified a series of immunodominant and subdominant epitopes from α fetoprotein (AFP), restricted by HLA-A*0201, which are recognized by the human T cell repertoire. The four immunodominant epitopes have been tested for immunogenicity in vivo, in HLA-A*0201+AFP+ advanced stage hepatocellular cancer (HCC) patients, and have activated and expanded AFP-specific IFN-γ-producing T cells in these patients, despite high serum levels of this self Ag. Here, we have examined the frequency, function, and avidity of the T cells specific for subdominant epitopes from AFP. We find that T cells specific for several of these epitopes are of similar or higher avidity than those specific for immunodominant epitopes. We then tested the peripheral blood of subjects ex vivo with different levels of serum AFP for the hierarchy of response to epitopes from this Ag and find that HCC patients have detectable frequencies of circulating IFN-γ-producing AFP-specific CD8+ T cells to both immunodominant and subdominant epitopes. We find the immunodominant and subdominant peptide-specific T cells to be differentially expanded with different modes of Ag presentation. Whereas spontaneous and AFP protein-stimulated responses show evidence for immunodominance, AdVhAFP-transduced dendritic cell-stimulated responses were broader and not skewed. Importantly, these data identify subdominant epitopes from AFP that can activate high-avidity T cells, and that can be detected and expanded in HCC subjects. These subdominant epitope-specific T cells can also recognize tumor cells and may be important therapeutically.

Double-strand DNA breaks (DSBs) are continuously induced in cells by endogenously generated free radicals and exogenous genotoxic agents such as ionizing radiation. DSBs activate the kinase activity in sensor proteins such as ATM and DNA-PK, initiating a complex DNA damage response that coordinates various DNA repair pathways to restore genomic integrity. In this study, we report the unexpected finding that homologous chromosomes contact each other at the sites of DSBs induced by either radiation or the endonuclease I-PpoI in human somatic cells. Contact involves short segments of homologous chromosomes and is centered on a DSB in active genes but does not occur at I-PpoI sites in intergenic DNA. I-PpoI-induced contact between homologous genes is abrogated by the transcriptional inhibitors actinomycin D and α-amanitin and requires the kinase activity of ATM but not DNA-PK. Our findings provide documentation of a common transcription-related and ATM kinase-dependent mechanism that induces contact between allelic regions of homologous chromosomes at sites of DSBs in human somatic cells.homologous chromosome interaction | homologous recombination D ouble-strand DNA breaks (DSBs) are continuously induced in eukaryotic cells by the free radicals generated by endogenous metabolic processes and by exposure to environmental genotoxic agents such as ionizing radiation (IR) and are considered to be the most dangerous DNA lesions (1-3). DSBs induce a complex DNA damage response that activates DNA repair pathways and cell cycle checkpoints and induces chromatin remodeling and apoptosis. ATM and DNA-PK, two phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-like kinases, are primary mediators of the DNA damage response to DSBs. Although ATM phosphorylates hundreds of substrates that are believed to regulate multiple DNA repair pathways including DSB repair by homologous recombination (HR) (4, 5), DNA-PK primarily regulates a limited group of effectors that mediate DSB repair by nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ) (3, 6). Misrepair of DSBs can result in the intrachromosomal and interchromosomal rearrangements that generate oncogenic gene fusions. Previously, we (7, 8) and others (9, 10) have shown that cancer-specific chromosomal rearrangements commonly arise as a result of exchange between chromosomal loci that are located in close spatial proximity at the time of DSB formation.While exploring the role of nuclear architecture and gene topology in the generation of chromosomal rearrangements in human somatic cells, we observed an unexpected finding that homologous chromosomes frequently contact each other at the sites of DSBs induced in G 0 /G 1 cells by either IR or the restriction enzyme I-PpoI. Further characterization demonstrated that this contact between homologous chromosomes is initiated by DSBs in genes but not by DSBs in intergenic DNA, requires active gene transcription, and depends on ATM kinase activity. ResultsHomologous Chromosomes Form Arm-Specific Contact Spontaneously and After Exposure to Ionizing Radiation. We used four-color 3D-...