This investigation tests a reconceptualization of ethnocentrism based primarily on Sumner's definitions. Ethnocentrism is reconceptualized as ethnic group self-centeredness, with four intergroup expressions of ingroup preference, superiority, purity, and exploitativeness, and two intragroup expressions of group cohesion and devotion. The reconceptualization was supported in Study 1 among 350 New Zealand participants and in Study 2 among 212 US, 208 Serbian, and 279 French participants. Ethnocentrism in each country consisted of two correlated second-order factors representing intergroup and intragroup ethnocentrism and six first-order factors representing the six primary expressions. Analyses in Study 2 supported the measurement invariance of the scale and a third-order factor model, with one ethnocentrism factor at the broadest level of generalization. Ethnocentrism was empirically distinct from outgroup negativity and mere ingroup positivity. Intragroup ethnocentrism appeared primarily based on ethnic insecurity, personal self-transcendence, and ethnic identification, whereas intergroup ethnocentrism appeared primarily based on self-aggrandizement, warlikeness, and generally chauvinistic attitudes. Accordingly, although related, the two kinds of ethnocentrism tend to have quite differential implications for group attitudes and behaviors. Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.''The sentiment of cohesion, internal comradeship, and devotion to the in-group, which carries with it a sense of superiority to any out-group and readiness to defend the interests of the in-group against the out-group, is technically known as ethnocentrism. '' (Sumner, 1911, p. 11).Ancient Greeks called all Non-Greeks ''barbarians,'' because, they said, barbarians speak unintelligibly-''bar-bar-bar'' (Jahoda & Krewer, 1997). A Brazilian tribe has the term ''kura'' to signify ''we'' and ''good,'' and the term ''kurapa'' to signify ''not we,'' and ''bad.'' The tribe believes that everything that is bad in the world comes from the outside and is sent by aliens (Von den Steinen, cited in Keller, 1931Keller, /1973. Most of the names given by preindustrial societies to their own tribe are translated in English as ''people,'' ''the only people,'' or ''people of people'', and often these tribes see themselves as the origin of all humans (Sumner, 1906).It has been recognized for many centuries that people tend to be ethnocentric. For example, the ancient Greek historian Herodotus (trans. 1947) wrote: ''For if one were to offer men to choose out of all the customs in the world such as seemed to them the best, they would examine the whole number, and end by preferring their own; so convinced are they that their own usages far surpass those of all others'' (p. 160). Ethnocentrism is still quite prominent in the world, in which many groups and cultures assume superiority and tend to reject and exploit those belonging to other groups and cultures.

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Two experiments were conducted to examine how activation of the motivational systems of approach and withdrawal (arm flexion vs. extension) through 2 different bodily mechanisms (right arm vs. left arm) influenced participants' evaluations of neutral Chinese ideographs. Study 1 found that unilateral flexion on the right side and unilateral extension on the left side led to more positive evaluations than unilateral flexion on the left side and unilateral extension on the right side. Using bilateral movements, Study 2 found that simultaneous performance of a right-arm flexion and a left-arm extension led to more positive evaluations than a left-arm flexion and a right-arm extension. A motor congruence hypothesis was offered to account for these findings.