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Abstract. The Himalayan region are home to the world’s youngest and largest mountains, and origins of major rivers systems of South Asia. The present work highlight the importance of remote sensing (RS) data based precipitation and terrain products such as digital elevation models, glacier lakes, drainage morphology along with limited ground data for improving the accuracy of hydrological and hydrodynamic (HD) models in various Himalayan river basins such as Upper Ganga, Beas, Sutlej, Teesta, Koshi etc. The satellite based rainfall have mostly shown under prediction in the study area and few places have are also showing over estimation of rainfall. Hydrological modeling results were most accurate for Beas basin, followed by Upper Ganga basin and were least matching for Sutlej basin. Limited ground truth using GNSS measurements showed that digital elevation model (DEM) for carto version 3.1 is most accurate, followed by ALOS-PALSAR 12.5 DEM as compared to other open source DEMs. Major erosion and deposition was found in Rivers Bhagirathi, Alakhnanda, Gori Ganga and Yamuna in Uttarakhand state and Beas and Sutlej Rivers in Himachal Pradesh using pre and post flood DEM datasets. The terrain data and river cross section data showed that river cross sections and water carrying capacity before and after 2013 floods have changed drastically in many river stretches of upper Ganga and parts of Sutlej river basins. The spatio-temporal variation and evolution of glacier lakes was for lakes along with GLOF modeling few lakes of Upper Chenab, Upper Ganga, Upper Teesta and Koshi river basin was done using time series of RS data from Landsat, Sentinel-1 and Google earth images.

In this paper a novel geographical multilayer protocol named Cluster-chain Based Hybrid (CCBH) Protocol is proposed for proper load balancing across the network that enhance the network lifespan and eliminate the energy holes problem. The CCBH protocol divides the network into the multilayer square structure around the sink. Each layer is divided into to the zones in such a way that the zones near to the sink are smaller in size and size of zones increases as the separation from the sink increases. In inner two layers, each zone has a cluster head (CH) and to reduce the load of CH a leader node (LN) is assigned in every zone. LN collects and aggregates the data received from neighboring nodes and sends it to the associated CH. Outer layer zones are larger in size. To reduce the clustering overhead chain strategy is introduced in outer layer zones that ensure lesser energy consumption as compared to clustering. Multi hop communiqué is used, where data is transferred from upper zone’s CH to immediate lower zone’s CH until it reaches to the sink. Simulated tests demonstrate that proposed CCBH protocol shows evident improvement in terms of the network lifetime as compare to LBCN, LEACH, TCAC, and DSBCA protocols