Aim Late Pleistocene glacial changes had a major impact on many boreal and temperate taxa, and this impact can still be detected in the present-day phylogeographic structure of these taxa. However, only minor effects are expected in species with generalist habitat requirements and high dispersal capabihty. One such species is the white-tailed eagle, Haliaeetus albicilla, and we therefore tested for the expected weak population structure at a continental level in this species. This also allowed us to describe phylogeographic patterns, and to deduce Ice Age refugia and patterns of postglacial recolonization of Eurasia.Location Breeding populations from the easternmost Nearctic (Greenland) and across the Palaearctic (Iceland, continental Europe, central and eastern Asia, and Japan).Methods Sequencing of a 500 base-pair fragment of the mitochondrial DNA control region in 237 samples from throughout the distribution range.Results Our analysis revealed pronounced phylogeographic structure. Overall, low genetic variability was observed across the entire range. Haplotypes clustered in two distinct haplogroups with a predominantly eastern or western distribution, and extensive overlap in Europe. These two major lineages diverged during the late Pleistocene. The eastern haplogroup showed a pattern of rapid population expansion and colonization of Eurasia around the end of the Pleistocene. The western haplogroup had lower diversity and was absent from the populations in eastern Asia. These results suggest survival during the last glaciation in two refugia, probably located in central and western Eurasia, followed by postglacial population expansion and admixture. Relatively high genetic diversity was observed in northern regions that were ice-covered during the last glacial maximum. This, and phylogenetic relationships between haplotypes encountered in the north, indicates substantial population expansion at high latitudes. Areas of glacial meltwater runoff and proglacial lakes could have provided suitable habitats for such population growth.Main conclusions This study shows that glacial climate fluctuations had a substantial impact on white-tailed eagles, both in terms of distribution and demography. These results suggest that even species with large dispersal capabilities and relatively broad habitat requirements were strongly affected by the Pleistocene climatic shifts.

Twenty‐four juvenile Steller's Sea Eagles Haliaeetus pelagicus were tracked via satellite from natal areas in Magadan, Kabarovsk, Amur, Sakhalin and Kamchatka. Nestling dispersal occurred between 9 September and 6 December (n = 24), mostly 14 September–21 October, and did not differ among regions or years. Most eagles made stopovers of 4–28 days during migration. Migration occurred 9 September–18 January, mostly along previously described routes, taking 4–116 days to complete (n = 18). Eagles averaged 47.8 km/day excluding stopovers; 22.9 km/day including stopovers. The mean degrees of latitude spanned during migration was: Kamchatka, 2.1; Magadan, 11.6; Amur, 7.3; and Sakhalin, 1.1. Eagle winter range sizes varied. Eagles concentrated in 1–3 subareas within overall winter ranges. The mean size of the first wintering subareas was 274 km2, the second 529 km2, and the third 1181 km2. Second wintering areas were south of first wintering areas. Spring migration started between 2 February and 31 March. Two eagles from Magadan were tracked onto summering grounds, well south of their natal areas. Both had early and late summering areas. One bird was followed for 25 months. It initiated its second autumn migration in the first half of October and arrived on its wintering grounds on 26 December. The second autumn migration covered 1839 km (20.9–22.4 km/day). Unlike its first winter when it used two subareas, this bird used only one subarea in 1998–99, but this was located near wintering areas used in 1997–98. It left its wintering ground between 13 April and 13 May, and arrived on its summering grounds between 7 June and 8 July. Unlike most satellite radiotracking studies, data are presented from a relatively large number of birds from across their breeding range, including new information on eagle movements on the wintering grounds and during the second year.

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Since the mid-2000s, we have been monitoring the status of two Haliaeetus pelagicus populations, breeding on Sakhalin Island (438 nesting territories) and the lower reaches of the River Amur (350 nesting territories), Russian Far East. The data were collected between 2004 and 2019, during 12 field seasons in each study area. The main focus was on reproductive vital rates: territory occupancy, the proportion of laying pairs, breeding success and brood size. Their combination determines how many fledglings the territory eventually produces (productivity and territory performance). Additionally, we estimated offspring loss by various causes. Finally, we recorded all H. pelagicus occurrences to characterise the population structure, i.e. the proportion of immatures and breeder-to-floater ratio. Our results showed that all characteristics varied greatly over time and space, and also varied across regions. The overall reproduction efficiency was quite low in both study areas: one nesting territory on the Lower Amur produces 0.51 fledglings per year, and 0.35 fledglings per year on Sakhalin Island. The mean productivity on Sakhalin Island was also lower than on the Lower Amur: 0.51 and 0.62 fledglings per occupied territory annually, respectively. This difference between study areas is mostly due to predation by Ursus arctos, which takes 18% of nestlings on Sakhalin but not on the Lower Amur. Apart from direct loss, U. arctos predation causes indirect effects on the H. pelagicus population by affecting territory occupancy and the proportion of laying pairs in the subsequent year. We revealed two linear temporal trends, both for the Sakhalin population (decrease in the proportion of laying pairs and increase in nestling mortality). However, more research and data analysis are needed to explain the low breeding performance in both study areas and guide conservation efforts to stabilise or recover the H. pelagicus populations.