Peace agreements and ceasefires may be signed, but whether they hold is another question. Rather than being single events, they are embedded in a peace process, which often begins long before any signatures are added, and can continue even longer afterwards. Supporting this process, with all the scaffolding required for social, political, institutional and physical reconstruction, is what we now know as peacebuilding. And a key component in that task is dealing with the combatants who took part in the armed conflict, and whose existence and actions can contribute to the peace process or undermine it. Programmes for the disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) of ex-combatants have therefore come to be regarded as an essential part of the peace-builder's toolkit. They have quite properly been described by the UN as often being 'at the nexus of peacekeeping, postconflict peacebuilding and development'. 1 Attempts to measure the immediate results of DDR have shown mixed results. Some studies indicate real benefits for those ex-combatants who took part in reintegration programmes, in terms of their social and economic well-being, for example in Liberia. 2 Others have failed to measure any significant benefit in Sierra Leone, 3 or have highlighted significant difficulties in trying to bring about social and economic reintegration, 4 especially for women. One of the difficulties with reintegration programmes is that they interact with a wide range of issues, from security sector reform and transitional justice, 5 to political and economic reconstruction. Sometimes the boundaries and lines of responsibility are not clear. The need for a holistic, integrated approach has long been recognised. 6 However, putting this into practice remains a challenge. DDR programmes come in a variety of forms, and some do not actually use the title. According to the review of the 22 programmes underway in 2006, 7 about a third come under the authority of national bodies, though nearly all rely on international funding. Most (16) include specific programmes for children. There are many obstacles to implementing a programme effectively, including security concerns and lack of infrastructure or capacity in the immediate postwar environment. There may be an understandable desire to show quick results and 'keep the ex-combatants busy' at a time when tensions or spoilers could destabilise an agreement. There are a wide range of actors with different interests, from large international agencies and organised armed groups to disempowered communities or struggling national ministries. Perhaps the greatest problems have been the exclusion of girls and women, 8 and the question of ex-combatants failing to find livelihoods after they have gone through reintegration. This is hardly surprising, given the context of extreme poverty and economic disruption which may be à à ¼ p , 0.05 Blank cells: No significant effect observed Key to tests used I: Individual regression analysis (variable on its own, with control variables) G: Grouped regressio...

Processes for Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR) are a fundamental component in peacebuilding. While disarmament can be relatively straightforward, reintegration is more complex and has varying degrees of success. Economic factors tend to be the focus, neglecting social reintegration in its fullest sense. This article draws on two sets of related field research data (collected in 2007, 2010 and 2011) in Liberia to highlight the role of social capital in shaping DDR outcomes. This is an important factor in the reintegration of ex-combatants, in terms of establishing and testing norms, engaging social networks, and building relationships and trust. These components of social capital are directly influenced by the reintegration experience, and in turn have a significant role in translating reintegration into peacebuilding. In addition, building on pre-existing social structures such as family connections, religious or community groups, and trading networks can in fact contribute to successful reintegration. When DDR initiatives fail, these structures are often the only way an ex-combatant has of reintegrating.

The demobilisation and re-integration of ex-combatants has become an important element in peace-building. The need for a more holistic, integrated approach, in which there is greater local ownership of the process, has long been recognised. However, putting this into practice remains a challenge. Re-integration ultimately takes place in the community, merging with development and post-conflict reconstruction. This study of re-integration in Sierra Leone uses the concept of 'participation' from development discourse, meaning the extent to which potential stakeholders have a say in how interventions are designed and implemented. It finds that participation and ownership are only seen to a limited extent, and only in certain situations. Many of the ex-combatants who participated in this study felt they did not receive adequate or accurate information regarding the re-integration process. This undermines the contribution that re-integration can have to the peace-building project. Participation proves to be a useful framework for assessing re-integration programmes, and for planning the more integrated approach that has long been advocated.

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