When attempting to consult with school personnel, psychologists frequently encounter various forms of resistance. This paper conceptualizes resistance to consultation services within a behavioral/cognitive behavioral framework, and discusses how resistance can result from contingencies operating at both the system and the building levels.

Multiple regression was used to determine the unique predictive contributions of several variables to problem-solving appraisal in 2 samples comprising 443 Ss, total. Problem-solving appraisal was the dependent variable, and the following variables were possible predictors: level of problemsolving skill; negative and positive coping strategies; internal-external locus of control; and a composite sum score of depression, trait anxiety, and self-concept. The combined multiple regression (SPSSX) results accounted for 50% and 41% of the variance for Samples 1 and 2, respectively, in problem-solving appraisal. The results revealed 2 consistent significant predictors: (a) positive coping strategies that seem to represent the process of doing something positively to solve problems through cognitive restructuring, focusing on the problem, and effecting interpersonal actions; and (b) global problem-solving self-efficacy.We gratefully acknowledge Terry Gutkin, for his assistance with earlier drafts of this article.

This study investigated the impact of behavioral consultation prereferral intervention services on patterns of school psychology service delivery. Data from 2 years prior to initiation were compared with data from 4 years during implementation of a prereferral model. Analyses indicated that during the time period consultative prereferral intervention services were offered: (a) more children were served by school psychologists, (b) a higher proportion of referred children achieved their educational objectives in regular classrooms, (c) a lower proportion of referred children were tested for special education services, and (d) a higher proportion of children tested were found eligible for special education programs' services. Implications for patterns of school psychological service delivery are discussed.School psychologists' dissatisfaction with their traditional psychometric roles (e.g., National Inservice Training Network, 1984) and the quality of services provided to special needs children (see Kavale & Glass, 1984, for a meta-analysis of special education efficacy) have lead many to suggest that intensive analyses and modifications of current service delivery approaches should be a central agenda for the profession (Conoley & Gutkin, 1986b;Elliott & Witt, 1986). Models using indirect/consultative service approaches have been widely viewed as being among those with the greatest possibilities for realizing the full potential of school psychological services (Conoley, 1986;Conoley & Gutkin, 1986a;Gutkin & Curtis, 1982).One of the principle obstructions to a more complete implementation of school-based consultation services has been the perception that such services are incompatible with the assessment role of school psychologists and the demands of PL 94-142 (Education for All Handicapped Children Act, 1975). Although several authors have argued to the contrary (e.g., Gibbins, 1978), the consultative function has remained more of an ideal than a reality for most school psychologists (

The Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale (CMAS) originally created in 1956, has been revised by Reynolds and Richmond (1978). New validity data on the scale were needed, and Reynolds (1980, 1982) has provided promising validity data on the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS) for elementary school aged children. Since little validity data are available for the RCMAS with adolescents, this study was designed to examine the concurrent validity of the RCMAS for adolescents. The expected relationships between the RCMAS and similar measures from the MMPI were found, indicating that the RCMAS may indeed be a valid measure of anxiety for adolescents. Aspects of discriminant validity (Campbell and Fiske, 1959) were evaluated and directions for future validity studies presented.

A review of the literature on school phobia reveals that the predominant view concerning its etiology is the separation anxiety theory. This theory is critically anlayzed on three major grounds: (a) methodological problems of the research; (b) its lack of generalizability concerning pathological mother-child relationships; and (c) its lack of emphasis on possible external, etiological variables. A case is made for reexamination of school phobia, in light of recent research highlighting the potential role of environmental variables, thereby taking it out of the realm of neurotic behaviors. An alternative conceptualization is offered that views school refusal as a normal avoidance reaction to an unpleasant, unsatisfying, or even hostile environment. It is suggested that we shift our research attention to the school environment and personnel in terms of their contribution to the etiology and maintenance of school refusal behaviors.Broadwin (1932) was the first to describe the school phobia syndrome, stating that absence from school was consistent, although the reason was incomprehensible. Although he noted that some children said they were afraid of school, afraid of the teacher, or afraid that something terrible was happening to mother while they were at school, Broadwin (1932) discounted such statements as rationalizations for a more general deep-seated neurosis. Johnson, Falstein, Szurek, and Svendsen (1941) were the first to actually use the term school phobia, differentiating it from truancy and classifying it as a psychoneurotic disorder. However, Johnson (1957) later restated that "school phobia is a misnomer. Actually it is a separation anxiety which occurs not only in early childhood, but also in later years" (p. 307).Since that time, many defiinitions of school phobia have evolved, with most emphasizing separation anxiety as a critical element. For example, Green (cited in Davidson, 1960) described "school-phobes" and "mother-philes," arguing that such children were not runningfrom school so much as they were running back to mother. Goldenberg and Goldenberg (1970) further stated that school-phobic children appear to dread some aspect of the school situation, as well as dreading physical separation from home and mother. Freedman, Kaplan, and Sadock (1970) actually defined school phobia as "a young child's sudden fear of and refusal to attend school; usually considered a manifestation of separation" (p. 1328). More recently, Achenbach (1982) commented that there appears to be general agreement that school-phobic children fear separation from parents more than they fear school. Thus, the key etiological assumption in school phobia is a fear or reluctance to be separated from mother. A second, less central etiological assumption in school phobia is fear of something unpleasant occurring at school. Although providing no references or other empirical support, Crowell and Walters (19%) state that "one of the common manifestations of depression and anxiety is the syndrome of school refusal" (p. 216).