Designing reflective activities for online video learning could enhance learning outcomes and, to some extent, influence learning processes (ie, attentional processes and emotional experiences). It is necessary to select different levels of reflective activities in online video learning according to learning processes and outcomes. This study examined to what extent different levels of reflection may affect the learning outcomes, and further explored the impact of reflection on learning processes. Participants, comprising 60 undergraduates, were randomly and equally assigned to two different groups: a reflection group and a critical reflection group, and each group member completed specific learning tasks. The results of the learning outcomes showed that critical reflection led to better transfer performance than reflection, but retention performance was the same in both conditions. Regarding process measures, eye‐tracking data indicated that the embedding of critical reflection strategies facilitated learners' visual attention, and controlled the difficulty of processing. Meanwhile, physiological data showed that the learners' reflection was accompanied by stress, and there was no significant difference between the two levels of reflection. What is already known about this topic Embedding reflections within videos is an effective instructional strategy for online learning which can facilitate students' deep learning. Recent studies have evaluated the effectiveness of reflection mostly through its impact on learning outcomes, yet focusing on the process of reflection is equally valuable. How to choose the level of reflection is critical and challenging. Whether it should combine the processes (including attentional processes and emotional experiences) and outcomes of reflection can be addressed through experimental research. What this paper adds Selecting different levels of reflection (ie, reflection and critical reflection) according to Kember's model and suggesting strategies (ie, retrospective interpretation reports and evaluation reports of problem solving) to guide reflection. The experimental design combined outcomes and processes in order to identify the most appropriate level of reflection in the context of video learning, and both offline and online measurements were taken (including eye tracking and physiological measures). Critical reflection leads to superior learning outcomes and has advantages for attentional processes. Additionally, reflection itself is the main factor influencing participants' stress, and there is no significant difference between the levels of reflection. Implications for practice and/or policy Providing guidance for different levels of reflection (ie, retrospective interpretation reports and evaluation report of problem solving), which helps inform the design of instructional videos and foster learners' reflective awareness. Educators should focus not only on the learning outcomes caused by reflection but also on the learning processes of reflection and the emoti...

Tacit knowledge is an essential foundation for developing students’ learning ability, especially in understanding and solving problems. However, the transforming of tacit knowledge confront a big challenge during the outbreak of Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), because most teaching and learning activities were conducted in online context, which impair a face-to-face interaction. To explore the effect of tacit knowledge on students’ learning ability in the online learning environments, the current study based on SECI model (The Socialization, Externalization, Combination, and Internalization) proposed to design the tacit knowledge transformation teaching approach. To assess the effectiveness of this approach, 60 elementary school students were recruited in the quasi-experiment. The results of retention test and transfer test showed that the experimental group, using the tacit knowledge transformation teaching approach, has significant improvement on learning ability than the control group. The current research theoretically provide a teaching strategy on tactic knowledge, and practically helps teachers to organize instructional activities, thereby, advocating the appropriate use of social media.

Virtual reality, as an excellent supportive instructional technology, has gained increasing attention from educators and professionals, where desktop‐based virtual reality (DVR) is broadly adopted due to its affordability and accessibility. However, when evaluating students' learning experiences such as flow experiences in DVR environments, most studies adopt a single construct (the total score of flow experience) rather than multiple constructs (enjoyment, engagement, concentration, presence and time distortion). This study implemented desktop‐based virtual reality for a STEM bridge designing program with a total of 254 undergraduates to investigate the relationship between self‐regulation skills, five dimensions of flow experience, learning satisfaction and continuous intention when engaging in a DVR learning environment. The results revealed that self‐regulated learning exerted a dominant impact on students' learning attitudes in DVR learning, in which students' flow experience had a significant mediating effect. Notably, although DVR exhibited poor time distortion, higher satisfaction and continuous intention were still predicted by the mentality of flow experience (ie, enjoyment, engagement, concentration and presence). The findings of this study contribute to the consideration of learning experiences and attitudes, which has insights for the future design of desktop‐based virtual reality environments and related instructional activities. What is already known about this topic Students are different in self‐regulation skills, which influences their satisfaction and continuous intention in learning. Students' self‐regulation skills are one of the important variables in predicting their flow experience. A high level of flow experience contributes to a coherent and efficient learning experience within desktop‐based virtual reality (DVR) environments. What this paper adds Students' self‐regulation skills positively predicted their flow experience and satisfaction in DVR environments. The components of flow experience (enjoyment, concentration and presence) partially mediated the relationship between self‐regulation skills and satisfaction. Students' self‐regulation skills indirectly affect continuous intention by the enjoyment and engagement of flow experiences. Implications for practice and/or policy When delivering DVR‐based learning activities educators should be supportive of students with low levels of self‐regulation skills. Emphasis on promoting flow experiences such as enjoyment, engagement, concentration and presence in designing a DVR‐based classroom could enhance student satisfaction and continuous intention. Embedding scaffolding or feedback in DVR settings would support self‐regulated learning and subsequently improve student satisfaction and persistence through enhanced flow experience.

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