Pain modulation is complex, but noradrenergic signalling promotes anti-nociception, with a 2 -adrenergic agonists used clinically. To better understand the noradrenergic/ peptidergic modulation of nociception, we examined the octopaminergic inhibition of aversive behaviour initiated by the Caenorhabditis elegans nociceptive ASH sensory neurons. Octopamine (OA), the invertebrate counterpart of norepinephrine, modulates sensory-mediated reversal through three a-adrenergic-like OA receptors. OCTR-1 and SER-3 antagonistically modulate ASH signalling directly, with OCTR-1 signalling mediated by Ga o . In contrast, SER-6 inhibits aversive responses by stimulating the release of an array of 'inhibitory' neuropeptides that activate receptors on sensory neurons mediating attraction or repulsion, suggesting that peptidergic signalling may integrate multiple sensory inputs to modulate locomotory transitions. These studies highlight the complexity of octopaminergic/peptidergic interactions, the role of OA in activating global peptidergic signalling cascades and the similarities of this modulatory network to the noradrenergic inhibition of nociception in mammals, where norepinephrine suppresses chronic pain through inhibitory a 2 -adrenoreceptors on afferent nociceptors and stimulatory a 1 -receptors on inhibitory peptidergic interneurons.

Monoamines, such as 5-HT and tyramine (TA), paralyze both free-living and parasitic nematodes when applied exogenously and serotonergic agonists have been used to clear Haemonchus contortus infections in vivo. Since nematode cell lines are not available and animal screening options are limited, we have developed a screening platform to identify monoamine receptor agonists. Key receptors were expressed heterologously in chimeric, genetically-engineered Caenorhabditis elegans, at sites likely to yield robust phenotypes upon agonist stimulation. This approach potentially preserves the unique pharmacologies of the receptors, while including nematode-specific accessory proteins and the nematode cuticle. Importantly, the sensitivity of monoamine-dependent paralysis could be increased dramatically by hypotonic incubation or the use of bus mutants with increased cuticular permeabilities. We have demonstrated that the monoamine-dependent inhibition of key interneurons, cholinergic motor neurons or body wall muscle inhibited locomotion and caused paralysis. Specifically, 5-HT paralyzed C. elegans 5-HT receptor null animals expressing either nematode, insect or human orthologues of a key Gαo-coupled 5-HT1-like receptor in the cholinergic motor neurons. Importantly, 8-OH-DPAT and PAPP, 5-HT receptor agonists, differentially paralyzed the transgenic animals, with 8-OH-DPAT paralyzing mutant animals expressing the human receptor at concentrations well below those affecting its C. elegans or insect orthologues. Similarly, 5-HT and TA paralyzed C. elegans 5-HT or TA receptor null animals, respectively, expressing either C. elegans or H. contortus 5-HT or TA-gated Cl- channels in either C. elegans cholinergic motor neurons or body wall muscles. Together, these data suggest that this heterologous, ectopic expression screening approach will be useful for the identification of agonists for key monoamine receptors from parasites and could have broad application for the identification of ligands for a host of potential anthelmintic targets.

The ability to detect noxious stimuli, process the nociceptive signal, and elicit an appropriate behavioral response is essential for survival. In Caenorhabditis elegans, opioid receptor agonists, such as morphine, mimic serotonin, and suppress the overall withdrawal from noxious stimuli through a pathway requiring the opioid-like receptor, NPR-17. This serotonin-or morphine-dependent modulation can be rescued in npr-17-null animals by the expression of npr-17 or a human opioid receptor in the two ASI sensory neurons, with ASI opioid signaling selectively inhibiting ASI neuropeptide release. Serotonergic modulation requires peptides encoded by both nlp-3 and nlp-24, and either nlp-3 or nlp-24 overexpression mimics morphine and suppresses withdrawal. Peptides encoded by nlp-3 act differentially, with only NLP-3.3 mimicking morphine, whereas other nlp-3 peptides antagonize NLP-3.3 modulation. Together, these results demonstrate that opiates modulate nociception in Caenorhabditis elegans through a complex monoaminergic/peptidergic cascade, and suggest that this model may be useful for dissecting opiate signaling in mammals.