In both sexes, there are anatomical and behavioral differences in dealing with bladder control, as well as voiding and incontinence. Despite intensive research within the last decades, the differences in physiology and pathophysiology as well as gender differences of bladder control and continence are still poorly understood and further research is highly needed. In babies, gender difference seems to be most likely caused by a difference in maturity rate of the bladder. After gaining bladder control, behavior starts to be influenced by socialization. During preschool and school, children experience a negative perception of school toilets. Especially girls crouch over the toilet seat and train to empty the bladder without relaxation of the pelvic floor. This posture may lead to bladder dysfunction. Often adult women continue this bad habit and bladder dysfunction may consolidate. From the fourth decade in both sexes lower urinary tract symptoms start to develop. However, men and women handle the problem variedly showing gender differences in coping strategies with better coping mechanisms in women. In general, gender difference in help seeking and receiving treatment increases with younger age. In elderly, urinary incontinence is only associated with a higher mortality in men, and elderly men seek more often professional help. Aim of the review is to provide an insight into gender differences of bladder control and bladder dysfunction.

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ARTICLE INFO ______________________________________________________________ ______________________Purpose: To report long-term results of the Argus T adjustable system for treatment of post-prostatectomy urinary incontinence (PPI). . Argus T has a long-term high success rate (86% cure + improvement at the 30-month follow-up). Good outcomes were achieved even in severe incontinence cases and maintained for over 30 months.

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In the last 4 years many studies have been published on the topic of upper urinary tract urothelial carcinoma (UTUC). This is a recent review of the available literature of the last 3 years. A systematic Medline/PubMed search on UTUC including limits for clinical trials and randomized, controlled trials was performed for English-language articles using the keywords 'upper urinary tract carcinoma', 'nephroureterectomy', 'laparoscopic', 'ureteroscopy', 'percutaneous', 'renal pelvis', 'ureter' and their combinations from January 2008 to December 2010. Additional selected reports from 2007 were included. Case reports and non-English literature were excluded. Publications were mostly retrospective, including some large, multicentre studies from the Upper Tract Urothelial Carcinoma Collaboration (UTUCC). The authors of this article are members of the UTUCC. Altogether, 92 original articles dealing with UTUC were identified and summarized. The vast majority of the available literature has a low level of evidence (level IV), although many multicentre studies tried to overcome the problem of low numbers by pooling data. It was concluded that in the last 3 years our knowledge regarding UTUC has increased dramatically, although new study concepts allowing us to increase the level of evidence are needed.