Historical ecology is a new interdisciplinary research program concerned with comprehending temporal and spatial dimensions in the relationships of human societies to local environments and the cumulative global effects of these relationships. Historical ecology contains core postulates that concern qualitative types of humanmediated disturbance of natural environments and the effect of these on species diversity, among other parameters. A central term used in historical ecology to situate human behavior and agency in the environment is the landscape, as derived from historical geography, instead of the ecosystem, which is from systems ecology. Historical ecology is similar to nonequilibrium dynamic theory, but differs in its postulate of human-mediated disturbance as a principle of landscape transformation. Such disturbances counterintuitively may involve anthropogenic primary and secondary succession that result in net increases of alpha and even beta diversity. Applied historical ecology can supply the reference conditions of time depth and traditional knowledge to restore past landscapes. 75 Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2006.35:75-98. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org by University of Massachusetts -Amherst on 10/13/12. For personal use only.

Quantitative data are presented on the use of trees in terra firme dense forest by four indigenous Amazonian groups: the Ka'apor and Tembe, both Tupi‐Guarani‐speaking groups of Brazil; the Panare, a Cariban‐speaking group of Venezuela; and the Chácobo, a Panoan‐speaking group of Bolivia. In each case, an ethnoecological forest inventory was conducted of a 1‐hectare parcel of forest. All trees at least 10 centimeters diameter at breast height (DBH) were marked, and botanical specimens were collected Specimens were presented to indigenous informants to gather data on use. Based on these interviews and the identifcation of specimens collected, it was possible to calculate the percentage of tree species on each hectare that was useful to each group: Ka'apor, 768 percent; Tembe 61.3 percent; Panare, 48.6 percent; Chacobo, 78.7 percent. Furthermore, by dividing the trees into various use categories (food construction, technology, remedy, commerce, and other), and designating the cultural importance of each species as “major” or “minor,” it was possible to devise a “use value” for each species, and by summation, for each plant family. Based on these calculations, it was determined that the Palmae was the most useful family for all four indigenous groups. Our data support the assertion that the terra firme rainforests of Amazonia contain an exceptionally large number of useful species and that certain plant families (e.g. Palmae) deserve special consideration in terms of conservation. The fact that each indigenous group has different suites of most useful species is, in fact, more a reflection of plant endemism within Amazonia than intercultural differences per se. High indigenous plant use combined with high endemism has important implications for conservation policy: many reserves are needed throughout Amazonia

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