Chemical immobilization of wildlife often includes opioids or cyclohexamines. These substances are problematic as a result of their required storage, handling, and record-keeping protocols. A potentially useful alternative sedation protocol includes a combination of butorphanol, azaperone, and medetomidine (BAM: 0.43 mg/kg butorphanol, 0.36 mg/kg azaperone, 0.14 mg/kg medetomidine). One risk of wildlife immobilization with any drug combination is hypoxemia. This may be of particular importance when using an alpha 2 agonist such as medetomidine because of its powerful vasoconstrictive effect. In this prospective study, the BAM combination was evaluated for chemical immobilization of white-tailed deer. Additionally, selected physiologic parameters associated with BAM immobilization, including oxygen saturation via pulse oximetry and arterial blood gas measurement, with and without nasal insufflation of oxygen at a relatively low flow of 3 L/min, were evaluated. The BAM combination resulted in a predictable onset of sedation, with a mean induction time to lateral recumbency of 9.8 +/- 3.6 min. All deer recovered smoothly within a range of 5-20 min after reversal with intramuscular administration of naltrexone, atipamazole, and tolazoline (NAT). Clinically relevant decreases in arterial partial pressure of oxygen (PaO2) and oxygen saturation (SpO2) were observed in animals not receiving supplemental oxygen, while both parameters significantly improved for oxygen-supplemented deer. Pulse oximetry with this protocol was an unreliable indicator of oxygen saturation. In this study, altitude, recumbency, hypoventilation, butorphanol- and medetomidine-specific effects, as well as the potential for alpha 2 agonist-induced pulmonary changes all may have contributed to the development of hypoxemia. Overall, capture of white-tailed deer with the BAM/NAT protocol resulted in excellent chemical immobilization and reversal. Because the BAM combination caused significant hypoxemia that is unreliably detected by pulse oximetry but that may be resolved with nasal oxygen insufflation, routine use of oxygen supplementation is recommended.

Sixty wild turkeys were necropsied following trapping, transporting and handling during the winters of 1980-1981, 1981-1982, and 1982-1983 in order to determine the incidence of subclinical capture myopathy. Gross lesions characterized by small to large patchy, pale white streaked areas within skeletal muscle were found in 13 of 27 birds trapped with a drop net in the winter of 1982-1983. Microscopic lesions within myocardium characterized by irregular areas of coagulative necrosis, collapse of intercellular stroma and myocardial nuclear proliferation were found in two of 14 birds in 1980-1981, five of 19 birds in 1981-1982 and 11 of 27 birds in 1982-1983. Microscopic lesions within skeletal muscle characterized by rhabdomyolysis were found in 16 of 19 birds in 1981-1982 and 25 of 27 birds in 1982-1983. These findings suggest that wild turkeys are susceptible to capture myopathy and particular caution should be exercised in capturing and handling these birds.

Drug combinations are commonly used to immobilize white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) for capture or handling. Although efficacy of various compatible and complementary drugs has been tested in clinical trials with deer, extensive negative side effects, impractical drug volume, and slow recovery from immobilization sometimes make these combinations less than ideal for routine field use. We hypothesized that a combination of butorphanol, azaperone, and medetomidine (BAM) would provide safe and effective immobilization of captive white-tailed deer while minimizing these complicating factors. We tested two dosages of this drug combination (BAM-1 and BAM-2) and two dosages of a naltrexone, tolazoline, and atipamezole antagonist combination (NTA-1 and NTA-2) with captive white-tailed deer. We characterized efficacy of drug for immobilization, quality of drug induction, and recovery after drug reversal, and we compared our findings with those of previous drug trials. Complete immobilization and excellent induction quality was achieved with a low volume dosage of BAM-2. Time to drug induction and deer recumbency for BAM-2 compared favorably with results from previous trials involving xylaxine/ ketamine and medetomidine/ketamine but without risk of hyperthermia. We found no differences in time to deer recovery for NTA-1 and NTA-2, with deer treated with either combination standing by 30 min postinjection. Regardless of immobilizing drugs used, we suggest practitioners monitor for signs of circulatory deficiency in deer and provide supplemental oxygen when needed.

Fourteen free-ranging white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were successfully anesthetized for a total of 15 anesthetic events using a combination of butorphanol (mean+/-SD, 0.58+/-0.1 mg/kg), azaperone (0.37+/-0.06 mg/kg), and medetomidine (0.19+/-0.03 mg/kg) (BAM) administered by radiotelemetry darts from hunting blinds between November 2006 and May 2007. Mean time to locate deer (mean+/-SD, 17. 3+/-7 min), to recumbency (21.4+/-5 min), to initiation of data acquisition (27.5+/-8 min), total down time (37+/-6 min), and average distance run (161+/-82 m) were recorded. Physiologic monitoring was done every 5 min for a total of 20 min. Arterial blood gases were collected every 10 min. Mild to moderate hypoxemia and mildly depressed ventilation occurred in some animals. Muscle relaxation and plane of anesthesia were adequate for completion of all procedures; two deer were administered intravenous butorphanol supplementation to achieve light anesthesia (mean+/-SD, 0.19 mg/kg; 0.12 mg/kg). Recovery following intramuscular administration of naltrexone (1.34+/-0.42 mg/kg; 2x butorphanol dose) and atipamezole (0.93+/-0.14 mg/kg; 5x medetomidine dose) was rapid, smooth, and complete. Mean+/-SD recovery time was 4.5+/-1.5 min. Overall efficacy of the Pneu-Dart radiotelemetry system was 65%. Negative attributes of this protocol included long induction time and dart failure. No known mortalities occurred as a result of the study. This drug combination provided safe, reliable, short-term anesthesia of free-ranging white-tailed deer. Further evaluation for use in field procedures in other cervids is warranted.

Field immobilization of native or invasive wild pigs (Sus scrofa) is challenging. Drug combinations commonly used often result in unsatisfactory immobilization, poor recovery, and adverse side effects, leading to unsafe handling conditions for both animals and humans. We compared four chemical immobilization combinations, medetomidine-midazolam-butorphanol (MMB), butorphanol-azaperone-medetomidine (BAM™), nalbuphine-medetomidine-azaperone (NalMed-A), and tiletaminezolazepam-xylazine (TZX), to determine which drug combinations might provide better chemical immobilization of wild pigs. We achieved adequate immobilization with no post-recovery morbidity with MMB. Adequate immobilization was achieved with BAM™; however, we observed post-recovery morbidity. Both MMB and BAM™ produced more optimal results relative to body temperature, recovery, and post-recovery morbidity and mortality compared to TZX. Adequate immobilization was not achieved with NalMed-A. Of the four drug combinations examined, we conclude that MMB performed most optimally for immobilization and recovery of wild pigs.