The study aimed to determine the influence of catchment characteristics and flood type on the relationship between streamflow and a number of chemical characteristics of streamwater. These were specific electrical conductivity (SC), pH, the concentrations of main ions (Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , Na + , K + , HCO 3 − , SO 4 2− , and Cl − ), and nutrients (NH 4 + , NO 2 − , NO 3 − , and PO 4 3− ). These relationships were studied in three small catchments with different geological structure and land use. Several flood types were distinguished based on the factors that initiate flooding and specific conditions during events. Geological factors led to a lower SC and main ion concentrations at a given specific runoff in catchments built of resistant sandstone versus those built of less resistant sediments. A lower concentration of nutrients was detected in the semi-natural woodland catchment versus agricultural and mixed-use catchments, which are strongly impacted by human activity. The strongest correlation between streamflow and the chemical characteristics of water was found in the woodland catchment. Different types of floods were characterized by different ion concentrations. In the woodland catchment, higher SC and higher concentrations of most main ions were noted during storm-induced floods than during floods induced by prolonged rainfall. The opposite was true for the agricultural and mixed-use catchments. During snowmelt floods, SC, NO 3 − , and most main ion concentrations were higher when the soil was unfrozen in the agricultural and mixed-use catchments versus when the soil was frozen. In the case of the remaining nutrients, lower concentrations of NH 4 + were detected during rain-induced floods than during snowmelt floods. The opposite was true of PO 4 3− .

Poland is mostly a lowland country. About 90% of the country, especially its central and northern parts, lies at elevations less than 300 m above sea level. The remaining territory are highlands that lie at elevations of 300-612 m, and mountains that usually lie at elevations of up to 1,200 m, with the highest peak at 2,499 m. The division of Poland into hydrogeological regions is linked to the geographic division of Poland. The Hydrogeological Atlas of Poland (Paczynski, 1995) identifies three regions: lowland, highland, mountain. A newer and more detailed system of classification identifies 161 bodies of groundwater in Poland (Paczynski and Sadurski, 2007). Lowland parts of Poland were shaped by a Pleistocene ice cap. Therefore, the surface of the land is rich in glacial features and A summary of the current body of knowledge on springs in Poland is presented. The paper relates the location of springs to geological structure, spring discharge, use of particular springs as well as threats associated with local groundwater nitrate pollution. Other key points include the uneven distribution of springs across Poland as well as varying levels of understanding of springs in northern Poland and in certain mountain ranges. The paper ends with a recommendation to monitor more springs over longer periods of time with respect to discharge and water quality.

Its beginnings tend to be linked to Alexander Humboldt who introduced the term "nature monument" in 1819 (Naturdenkmal, Monument de la Nature). Nature conservation is concerned with a variety of natural features and phenomena. The spectrum of inanimate features subject to conservation and protection includes the Earth's crust (structures, rocks, and minerals), Earth history and life forms, landforms, and contemporary geological, geomorphological, and hydrological processes (Gray, 2003). Springs fit in very well with the idea of the Earth's geodiversity, because as natural and concentrated outflows of water on the surface, they combine processes within the Earth's crust (conditioned by its structures) with the surface natural environment (and the impact on its morphology and organic life). Springs also constitute a very important and traditional cultural component. For these reasons, springs deserve a special degree of legal protection. The aim of this paper is to present current issues in the geoconservation of springs in Poland, its effectiveness, and the problems arising from increasing human pressures. The Need for Non-economic Protection of Springs Springs are natural features that offer information about the groundwater environment without the need for costly drilling operations. Spring water conditions such as their discharge, temperature, chemistry, and organic life change under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors. Springs also influence the natural environment by affecting the local landforms and modifying the humidity levels in the soil and air, thus impacting the habitats of plants as well as wildlife (Springer and Stevens, 2009). The impact of a spring goes far beyond its physical dimensions at its point of emergence. Springs appear in various forms and they function as kind of environmental islands that influence the landscape and sometimes enrich it with special qualities. Springs also function in the cultural dimension as evidenced by the names given to them and their linkage to local popular traditions and beliefs as far back as Greek mythology (Mariolakos, 1998). Such traditions have also been continued in Christianity (Ball, 2004). For example, according to local beliefs, some springs have been associated with holy persons and/or various miraculous properties (e.g. the St. Vincent Kadlubek Spring near Sandomierz in the Swietokrzyskie Mountains in south-central Poland-Gagol and Urban, 2000; and several springs in the Cracow-Czestochowa Upland in southern Poland-Bascik and Chelmicki, 2002). Historically, such special motivations were usually behind the first practical, although informal, forms of protection given to springs. Currently, springs are most often protected as sources of water for drinking and economic use. Given the large scale of these purposes, springs are usually reconstructed in a way that eliminates their natural Springs are unique phenomena that document water circulation conditions. Their economic importance and use often gives rise to the degradation of their natu...