This study reveals an important role for chondroitin sulfate in bladder barrier function. Therapies aiming at restoring the luminal glycosaminoglycan layer in pathological conditions such as bladder pain syndrome/interstitial cystitis are based on a sound principle.

Background:The autotaxin ␣ splice variant (ATX␣) contains a unique polybasic insertion of unknown function. Results: ATX␣ binds strongly to heparin and cell-associated heparan sulfate. Conclusion: The ATX␣ insertion confers specific binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycans thereby targeting LPA production to the plasma membrane. Significance: ATX isoforms use distinct mechanisms to ensure spatially restricted LPA production and signaling.

Heparan sulfate (HS), a long linear polysaccharide of alternating disaccharide residues, interacts with a wide variety of proteins, including many angiogenic factors. The involvement of HS in signaling of pro-angiogenic factors (e.g. vascular endothelial growth factor and fibroblast growth factor 2), as well as interaction with anti-angiogenic factors (e.g. endostatin), warrants its role as an important modifier of (tumor) angiogenesis. This review summarizes our current understanding of the role of HS in angiogenic growth factor signaling, and discusses therapeutic strategies to target HS and modulate angiogenesis.

the California Poison Control System-San Francisco division identified 8 patients who experienced adverse effects associated with the ingestion of counterfeit alprazolam tablets found to contain fentanyl and, in some cases, etizolam. The identification of these patients resulted in a coordinated response that included state and local public health departments, a toxicology laboratory, and media outlets, and resulted in an investigation by local law enforcement agencies.

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