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Purpose To investigate the temporal and causal relationships of structural changes in the brain in patients with schizophrenia. Materials and Methods T1-weighted magnetic resonance (MR) images of 97 patients with schizophrenia (29 women; mean ± standard deviation age, 41 years ± 11.5; range, 16-66 years; illness duration, 16.3 years ± 10.9; range, 0-50 years) and 126 age- and sex-matched (38 years ± 14.9; range, 18-68 years; 42 women) healthy control subjects were evaluated. The causal network of structural covariance was used to assess the causal relationships of structural changes in patients with schizophrenia. This was accomplished by applying Granger causality analysis to the morphometric T1-weighted images ranked according to duration of disease. Results With greater disease duration, reduction in gray matter volume began in the thalamus and progressed to the frontal lobe, and then to the temporal and occipital cortices as well and the cerebellum (P < .00001, false discovery rate corrected). The thalamus was shown to be the primary hub of the directional network and exhibited positive causal effects on the frontal, temporal, and occipital regions as well as on the cerebellum (P < .05, false discovery rate corrected). The frontal regions, which were identified to be transitional points, projected causal effects to the occipital lobe, temporal regions, and the cerebellum and received causal effects from the thalamus (P < .05, false discovery rate corrected). Conclusion Schizophrenia shows progression of gray matter abnormalities over time, with the thalamus as the primary hub and the frontal regions as prominent nodes. RSNA, 2018 Online supplemental material is available for this article. An earlier incorrect version of this article appeared online. This article was corrected on March 5, 2018.

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Unconventional resources such as shale gas and tight oil are contributing more and more significantly in the energy nexus. However, porosity and permeability of these reservoirs are extremely low; therefore, stimulating technologies are required. The state-of-the-art solution for such a target is water fracturing, but its application suffers from massive water usage and related environmental issues. As a greener alternative, fracturing with CO 2 may bring multiple benefits, including effective fracturing, enhanced recovery, carbon storage, and others.