Nanomedicine approaches have the potential to transform the battle against parasitic worm (helminth) infections, a major global health scourge from which billions are currently suffering. It is anticipated that the intersection of two currently disparate fields, nanomedicine and helminth biology, will constitute a new frontier in science and technology. This progress report surveys current innovations in these research fields and discusses research opportunities. In particular, the focus is on: (1) major challenges that helminth infections impose on mankind; (2) key aspects of helminth biology that inform future research directions; (3) efforts to construct nanodelivery platforms to target drugs and genes to helminths hidden in their hosts; (4) attempts in applying nanotechnology to enable vaccination against helminth infections; (5) outlooks in utilizing nanoparticles to enhance immunomodulatory activities of worm-derived factors to cure allergy and autoimmune diseases. In each section, achievements are summarized, limitations are explored, and future directions are assessed.

Context Molecular testing has improved risk stratification and increased non-operative management for patients with indeterminate thyroid nodules, but data on the long-term outcomes of current molecular tests Afirma Gene Sequencing Classifier (GSC) and Thyroseq v3 are limited. Objective To determine the rate of delayed operation and the false-negative rate of the Afirma GSC and Thyroseq v3 in Bethesda III and IV thyroid nodules. Design Prospective follow-up of a single center randomized clinical trial comparing the performance of Afirma GSC and Thyroseq v3 in the diagnosis of indeterminate thyroid nodules. Setting University of California, Los Angeles Participants Consecutive participants who underwent thyroid biopsy in the UCLA health system with Bethesda III and IV cytology from August 2017 to November 2019. Main Outcomes and Measures False negative rate of molecular testing. Results Of 176 indeterminate nodules with negative or benign molecular test results, 14 (8%) nodules underwent immediate resection, with no malignancies found on surgical pathology. Non-operative management with active surveillance was pursued for 162 (92%) nodules with benign or negative test results. The median surveillance was 34 months (range 12-60 months), and 44 patients were lost to follow-up. Of 15 nodules resected during surveillance, one malignancy was found (overall false negative rate of 0.6%). This was a 2.7 cm minimally invasive Hurthle cell carcinoma that initially tested negative with Thyroseq v3 and underwent delayed resection due to sonographic growth during surveillance. Conclusions The majority of Bethesda III/IV thyroid nodules with negative or benign molecular test results are stable over 3 years of follow-up. These findings support the high sensitivity of current molecular tests and their role in ruling out malignancy in indeterminate thyroid nodules.

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