Purpose Herpes simplex virus-type 2 (HSV-2) can cause Acute Retinal Necrosis (ARN), which can lead to exudative and rhegmatogenous retinal detachment; yet, little is know about the cellular and molecular mechanisms of HSV-2 entry into retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells. The goal of this study was to establish the identity of the critical receptors utilized by the virus for infection. Methods A reporter HSV-2 virus, which expresses beta-galactosidase, was used to quantify entry into RPE cells and viral replication was ascertained using a plaque assay. Flow cytometry and immunocytochemistry were used to determine cellular expression of entry receptors. Localization of these receptors to either the apical or basal surface of RPE cells was determined using immunocytochemistry. The necessity of these receptors, both individually and in combination, for viral entry was established using both receptor-specific antibodies and siRNAs. Results RPE are highly susceptible to HSV-2 entry and replication. Several assays demonstrated the expression of the entry receptors nectin-1, HVEM, and PILR-alpha and their localization primarily to the apical surface of RPE cells. Receptor-specific antibodies and siRNA knockdown of receptors significantly reduced viral entry and implicated nectin-1 as an important receptor with HVEM and PILR-alpha potentially also contributing to entry. Conclusions HSV-2 is capable of developing a productive infection in RPE cells by utilizing nectin-1 as an important entry receptor. To lesser degrees, HVEM and PILR-alpha may also contribute to HSV-2 entry into RPE cells.

The All India Survey of Photovoltaic Module Reliability 2014 is an enhanced version of the survey conducted in the previous year, with detailed characterization of PV modules including current-voltage, infrared and electroluminescence imaging, visual inspection, insulation resistance test and interconnect breakage test. More than a thousand modules were inspected in the field and the main results of the survey are presented in this paper. The average P max degradation rate for the so-called 'good' modules (Group X) is 1.33%/year which is higher than that commonly projected by manufacturers, and widely employed in financial calculations. Modules falling in the 'not-so-good' category (Group Y) show even higher degradation rates, and it is at least partly due to higher number of micro-cracks in the modules, and increased degradation of the packaging materials like encapsulant, backsheet, etc. Modules in 'Hot' climates degrade faster than modules in the 'Non-Hot' climates. Degradation in fill factor is the primary cause for performance degradation in the young modules (ages <5 years), whereas short-circuit current degradation is the main contributor to power degradation in the older modules. Small installations (<100 kW p capacity) show higher degradation than large systems, which may be partly due to lack of proper due diligence by the owner at the time of procurement and installation.

This paper shows results obtained by using SMOS Level 2 retrieval algorithm, run at prototype stage, over forests. For each SMOS pixel, the algorithm estimates the soil moisture (SM) and the vegetation optical depth (τ). Average τ values retrieved in 4 days of July 2011 over forest pixels are shown and compared against forest height estimated by GLAS Lidar on board ICEsat satellite. Results of the comparison show a significantly increasing trend of τ with respect to forest height. For each 1-m interval of forest height estimated by Lidar, the standard deviation of optical depth is slightly higher than 0.1. The analysis is made again considering forest τ retrieved in 4 days of February, May, and November 2011, and it is observed that seasonal effects over optical depth are low. As an insight, it is shown that the increasing trend is still observed after subdividing world forests into Coniferous, Deciduous Broadleaf, and Evergreen Broadleaf. Comparisons with independent information about biomass are also shown at regional level for the U.S. The increasing trend is still observed, but with a reduced range of values. For SM, 14 nodes of the SCAN/SNOTEL network in the U.S. are considered. Over 2 years of data, retrieved values of SM are compared against ground measurements. Obtained values of correlation coefficient, rms error, and bias are reported.