Objective. To study the chondroprotective effect of constitutively expressed TSG-6 protein (tumor necrosis factor ␣-induced protein 6; Tnfip6) in cartilage, using antigen-induced arthritis (AIA) in mice.Methods. Transgenic mice constitutively expressing TSG-6 protein in cartilage were generated. Cartilage-specific constitutive expression of TSG-6 protein was confirmed by in situ hybridization, Western blot analysis, and immunohistochemistry. Control and transgenic mice were immunized with methylated bovine serum albumin (mBSA), and arthritis was induced by the intraarticular injection of mBSA. Mice were monitored up to day 35 after the challenge, and knee joint sections were examined for loss of cartilage proteoglycan (aggrecan) using Safranin O staining and antibodies to neoepitopes generated by various metalloproteinases (MPs). The loss of aggrecan in Safranin O-stained sections was quantified by morphometric methods.Results. Tsg6/tnfip6 transgenic mice constitutively expressed tsg6/tnfip6 messenger RNA and corresponding TSG-6 protein in cartilage from embryonic life through adulthood, without any phenotypic abnormalities. These mice were used for AIA studies. Intraarticular injection of mBSA uniformly induced severe inflammation both in control (wild-type and an irrelevant transgenic line) mice and in tsg6/tnfip6 transgenic mice. In contrast to the mBSA-injected knee joints of control animals that were heavily damaged from day 5, the cartilage of transgenic mice that constitutively expressed TSG-6 protein remained intact for at least 1 week, and this was followed by a relatively reduced loss of aggrecan. Concomitant with the loss of aggrecan, MP-generated neoepitopes accumulated in unprotected joints. By day 35, the proteoglycan content returned to nearly normal levels in tsg6/tnfip6 transgenic mice, whereas it remained low in MP-damaged knee cartilage of control mice.Conclusion. TSG-6 protein is known to form a complex with inter-␣-inhibitor (I␣I), a potent serine protease inhibitor, which may be immobilized via the hyaluronan (HA)-binding domain of TSG-6 protein in the HA-rich extracellular matrix of cartilage. Thus, the local accumulation of TSG-6 protein and TSG-6 protein-bound I␣I in tsg6/tnfip6 transgenic mice may inhibit serine proteases and subsequent activation of MPs. It is suggested that this mechanism might protect

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Oncolytic virotherapy is a promising new tool for cancer treatment, but direct lytic destruction of tumor cells is not sufficient and must be accompanied by strong immune activation to elicit anti-tumor immunity. We report here the creation of a novel replication-competent recombinant oncolytic herpes simplex virus type 1 (VG161) that carries genes coding for IL-12, IL-15, and IL-15 receptor alpha subunit, along with a peptide fusion protein capable of disrupting PD-1/PD-L1 interactions. The VG161 virus replicates efficiently and exhibits robust cytotoxicity in multiple tumor cell lines. Moreover, the encoded cytokines and the PD-L1 blocking peptide work cooperatively to boost immune cell function. In vivo testing in syngeneic CT26 and A20 tumor models reveals superior efficacy when compared to a backbone virus that does not express exogenous genes. Intratumoral injection of VG161 induces abscopal responses in non-injected distal tumors and grants resistance to tumor re-challenge. The robust anti-tumor effect of VG161 is associated with T cell and NK cell tumor infiltration, expression of Th1 associated genes in the injection site, and increased frequency of splenic tumor-specific T cells. VG161 also displayed a superb safety profile in GLP acute and repeated injection toxicity studies performed using cynomolgus monkeys. Overall, we demonstrate that VG161 can induce robust oncolysis and stimulate a robust anti-tumor immune response without sacrificing safety.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are part of the innate immune system, and they belong to the pattern recognition receptors (PRR) family. The PRR family is designed to recognize and bind conserved pathogen-associated molecular patterns, which are not generated by the host and are restricted and essential to micro-organisms. TLR9, which recognizes unmethylated CpG (cytosine guanosine dinucleotide), is a very promising target for therapeutic activation. Stimulation of TLR9 activates human plasmacytoid dendritic cells and B cells, and results in potent T helper-1 (T(h)1)-type immune responses and antitumor responses in mouse tumor models and in patients. Several pharmaceutical companies, such as Pfizer, Idera, and Dynavax, are developing CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) for the treatment of cancer, along with other conditions, such as infections and allergy. CpG ODNs have shown promising results as vaccine adjuvants and in combination with cancer immunotherapy. Several TLR9 agonists are being developed and have entered clinical trials to evaluate their safety and efficacy for the treatment of several hematopoietic and solid tumors. In this review, we discuss the use of CpG ODNs in several phase I and II clinical trials for the treatment of NHL, renal cell carcinoma, melanoma, and non-small cell lung cancer, either alone or in combination with other agents.

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