The wine industry is facing critical issues due to climate changes since production is established on very tight Genotype × Environment interaction bases. While, some cultivation practices may reduce adverse effects of abiotic stresses on the vines, e.g., the use of irrigation to mitigate drought, the deleterious impacts of warming on fruit development are difficult to manage. Elevated temperature alters grapevine fruit growth and composition, with a critical increase of the sugars/organic acids ratio. Select grapes with improved metabolite balances to offset high temperature effects is a valuable option to sustain viticulture. Unfortunately, the lack of knowledge about the genetic diversity for fruit traits impacted by temperature impairs the design of breeding programs. This study aimed to assess the variation in berry volume, main sugars and organic acids amounts in genetic resources. Fruit phenotyping focused on two critical stages of development: the end of green lag phase when organic acidity reaches its maximum, and the ripe stage when sugar unloading and water uptake stop. For that purpose, we studied a panel of 33 genotypes, including 12 grapevine varieties and 21 microvine offspring. To determine the date of sampling for each critical stage, fruit texture and growth were carefully monitored. Analyses at both stages revealed large phenotypic variation for malic and tartaric acids, as well as for sugars and berry size. At ripe stage, fruit fresh weight ranged from 1.04 to 5.25 g and sugar concentration from 751 to 1353 mmol.L-1. The content in organic acids varied both in quantity (from 80 to 361 meq.L-1) and in composition, with malic to tartaric acid ratio ranging from 0.13 to 3.62. At the inter-genotypic level, data showed no link between berry growth and osmoticum accumulation per fruit unit, suggesting that berry water uptake is not dependent only on fruit osmotic potential. Diversity among varieties for berry size, sugar accumulation and malic to tartaric acid ratio could be exploited through cross-breeding. This provides interesting prospects for improving grapevine to mitigate some adverse effects of climate warming on grapevine fruit volume and quality.

Aim: In this study, ripening and heterogeneity in density-sorted berries were investigated, with the aim of more clearly understanding the kinetics of water uptake and sugar, acid and anthocyanin accumulation in the fruit of a new, disease-resistant hybrid.Methods and results: The 3184-1-9N hybrid, grown in a semi-arid climate in the South of France, was used. Its genotype is the result of several backcrosses of a Muscadinia ´ Vitis vinifera F1 hybrid with several V. vinifera varieties. From the end of the green plateau to the over-ripening stage, single berries were sampled weekly and sorted by density, to monitor the advancement of ripening and the heterogeneity of grapevine fruit development at population level. Fruit firmness, density, fresh weight, primary metabolite content (sugars and organic acids), secondary metabolite content (anthocyanins), potassium content and pH were measured in berries from each density class. The data showed that softening and hexose accumulation occurred before fruit pigmentation. Based on malic acid and anthocyanin concentration relative to sugar concentration in density-sorted grapes, malic acid breakdown or dilution was promoted and anthocyanin accumulation reduced in late- or slow-ripening berries. In the different population structures in two experimental plots, berries with similar sugar concentration showed considerable heterogeneity in terms of volume and anthocyanin content, whereas pH, potassium content and acid content showed much more homogeneous kinetics.Conclusions: During ripening, analysis of density-sorted berries provides useful information about sugar concentration heterogeneity and its relation with organic acid and anthocyanin content. The stage at which grapes can be considered ripe may be precisely determined through periodic determination of mean berry volume or weight, to detect the cessation of phloem unloading and the onset of berry shrivelling. However, ripening and shrivelling berries generally coexist in the harvested population. Asynchronous berry development and berry weight heterogeneity greatly complicate determination of the timing of developmental events that are regulated at the single-berry level. Therefore, analysis of individual berries would seem to be an indispensable component of investigations of berry growth and development.Significance and impact of the study: Plotting water uptake and solute accumulation relative to sugar accumulation (as an internal clock) provides an original way to display grapevine fruit development data. Analysis of density-sorted berries has identified the relatively invariant fruit features, such as the minimum concentration of tartaric acid, the stability of potassium accumulation and pH, and conversely, the huge variations in berry size.

The selection of grapevine varieties is considered to be the smartest strategy for adapting the viticulture to climate warming. Present knowledge of the diversity of grape solutes known to be influenced by temperature is too limited to perform genetic improvement strategies. This study aimed to characterize the diversity for major cations (K + , Mg 2+ , Ca 2+ , NH 4 +) of the Vitis vinifera fruit and their effect on acidity. Two developmental stages were targeted: the end of green growth, when organic acids reach a maximum, and the physiological ripe stage defined by the stopping of solutes and water import at the maximum volume of the berry. Twelve varieties and 21 microvines from the same segregating population were selected from preliminary phenotyping. The concentration of cations depended on the stage of fruit development, the genotype and the environment with GxE effects. In the ripe grape, K + concentration varied from 28 to 57 mmol.L-1 with other cations being less concentrated. Combined with the variation in organic acids, cation concentration diversity resulted in titratable acidity of the ripe fruit ranging from 38 to 215 meq.L-1. These results open new perspectives for the selection of varieties to mitigate the adverse effects of climate warming on grape quality.

Taking account of the high specificity of the organic load of winery effluents, a new biophysical treatment using the stripping of ethanol combined with a final concentration by evaporation has been studied. Two options are proposed: full treatment and pre-treatment. The study of the composition of winery wastewater has shown the large, dominant part of ethanol in the organic load (75 to 99% of the COD). According to a linear correlation between COD and ethanol concentration, the determination of ethanol concentration can be used to estimate the organic load of winery wastewater. Full treatment by stripping and concentration at a pilot plant allows the separation of the wastewater into highly purified water (COD elimination > 99%), a concentrated alcoholic solution usable as bio-fuel and a concentrated by-product. Stripping alone represents an advantageous pre-treatment of winery wastewater. The purification rate reaches 78 to 85% and ethanol is recovered. The process facilitates discharge into a sewage system in view of treatment with domestic effluents and can also improve the efficiency of overloaded or old purification plants. The economical approach of this method demonstrates its competitiveness in comparison with biological treatments: low energy consumed, no sludge.

<p class="Abstract" style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Aim:</strong> In the long term, genetic improvement is one of the major strategies to support sustainable wine production in a changing climate. Over the past 5 years, we have developed an interdisciplinary research program that aimed to: i) characterize the impact of temperature increase sensed by the entire plant or individual bunches on the development and functioning of the plant, ii) identify the physiological and molecular mechanisms regulating the response of vegetative and reproductive development to heat stress and iii) develop tools to map quantitative trait loci (QTLs) of plant and berry development in duly controlled, stable, and contrasting environmental conditions.</p><p class="Abstract" style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Methods and results:</strong> Performing high-throughput genomic analyses combined with the use of innovative experimental designs (fruiting cuttings, microvines, single berry sampling) was critical to decipher the ecophysiological and molecular mechanisms involved in the vine response to high temperature.</p><p class="Abstract" style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Conclusion:</strong> Warming promotes vegetative growth and hampers plant carbon balance, disturbing flower set and young berry development. High temperatures modify primary and secondary fruit metabolisms, desynchronizing sugar and organic acid metabolisms and delaying sugar and polyphenol accumulation during ripening. The study of day and night transcriptomic and proteomic signatures associated with heat highlighted key players of the response to temperature in the fruit. </p><p class="Abstract" style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Significance and impact of the study:</strong> Capitalizing on this knowledge, a new program is being proposed for the selection of cultivars limiting the accumulation of sugars in the berry while maintaining other qualitative compounds.</p>