SummaryDiversity and plasticity are hallmarks of macrophages. Classically activated macrophages are considered to promote T helper type 1 responses and have strong microbicidal, pro-inflammatory activity, whereas alternatively activated macrophages are supposed to be associated with promotion of tissue remodelling and responses to anti-inflammatory reactions. Transformation of different macrophage phenotypes is reflected in their different, sometimes even opposite, roles in various diseases or inflammatory conditions. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have emerged as critical regulators of macrophage polarization (MP). Several miRNAs are induced by Toll-like receptors signalling in macrophages and target the 3 0 -untranslated regions of mRNAs encoding key molecules involved in MP. Therefore, identification of miRNAs related to the dynamic changes of MP and understanding their functions in regulating this process are important for discussing the molecular basis of disease progression and developing novel miRNA-targeted therapeutic strategies. Here, we review the current knowledge of the role of miRNAs in MP with relevance to immune response and inflammation.
Chronic infections have been shown to enhance atherogenicity. However, the association between chronic hepatitis C (HCV) and coronary heart disease (CHD) remains controversial. We examined the risk for CHD events in patients with HCV with an emphasis on the risk of CHD events with active infection. We conducted a retrospective cohort study using the Enterprise Data Warehouse at the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences. HCV positive and negative patients were identified based on serology and incident CHD events were studied. Patient characteristics at entry were compared either by analysis of variance/F-test (continuous variables) or by a Chi-squared test (categorical variables). The joint effect of risk factors for incident CHD was evaluated using logistic regression. A total of 8,251 HCV antibody positive, 1,434 HCV RNA positive and 14,799 HCV negative patients were identified. HCV antibody and RNA positive patients had a higher incidence of hypertension, diabetes mellitus, obesity and chronic lung disease, but lower serum cholesterol levels compared to HCV negative patients (p< 0.001). HCV seropositive patients had a higher incidence of CHD events when compared to controls (4.9% vs. 3.2%, p<0.001). In the HCV cohort, patients with detectable HCV RNA had a significantly higher incidence of CHD events when compared to patients who were only HCV antibody positive with no detectable RNA (5.9% vs. 4.7%, p=0.04). In multivariate logistic regression analysis, both HCV antibody positivity (OR 1.32, 95% CI 1.09-1.60, p<0.001) and HCV RNA positivity (OR 1.59, 95% CI 1.13-2.26, p<0.001) were independent risk factors for incident CHD events. In conclusion, there is increased incidence of CHD events in HCV seropositive patients and the incidence is much higher in patients with detectable HCV RNA when compared to patients with remote infection who are only antibody positive. Lipid profile does not appear to be a good cardiovascular risk stratification tool in HVC patients.
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