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China has achieved remarkable results and made great contributions in poverty reduction alleviation. However, with the continuous advancement of poverty alleviation, the emergence of re-poverty has become a tangible problem. In this study, an analysis framework for vulnerability to re-poverty (VRP) is established. Furthermore, the spatial-temporal patterns and obstacle factors of VRP in rural China from 2000 to 2017 are explored. The results show the overall spatial pattern of VRP in rural China in the past 18 years exemplifies spatial heterogeneity. Notably, the "Hu Huanyong Line" is the boundary, and are significant differences between the east and west China. Next, VRP shows a significant global spatial positive correlation, indicating a significant spatial agglomeration characteristic. Moreover, the local spatial autocorrelation analysis shows that VRP has a certain spatial dependence. Finally, the rate of urbanization and number of rural employees have become the key obstacles to VRP in rural China. Therefore, VRP in different regions are influenced by the proportion of gross output value of agriculture to gross regional output value, average annual precipitation, elevation, relief degree of land surface, number of welfare agencies, and the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). Based on these findings, some policy recommendations are proposed, including promoting new urbanization, providing rural employment, strengthening infrastructure, and improving the resilience of ecological environments. KeywordsVulnerability to re-poverty (VRP) • Spatial-temporal patterns • Vulnerability scoping diagram • Rural • China * Jing Chen

The grassland is the most important resource for the herdsmen in Inner Mongolia, China. In the 1980s, pastureland was administratively allocated based on household size. The subsequent changes in socioeconomic and new household characteristics suggest that adjustment is needed for more efficient land use. This study reviewed the recent progress of the rental market and investigated the herdsmen’s behaviours regarding grassland market transactions in Xilingol League, Inner Mongolia. The economic assumption is that there exists a variation in values by household for each given parcel of land, which drives land transfer to users who can generate higher values. Each household is characterised by its initial pasture landholding, herding facilities and demographics. But the gain from the transfer must be deducted from the transaction costs, and cooperative membership can significantly reduce the transaction costs. An econometric model is developed and tested with data collected from household surveys in the Xilingol League. The results indicate that household size is the most significant variable for land transfer in the long run. Herdsmen have been dynamically adjusting herding equipment and pasture landholdings, allocating labour between herding and non-herding activities in response to these changes in society. Cooperative organisation was found to be significant in facilitating land transfer due to its role in reducing transaction costs. Higher quality land with higher rent is also found to be more likely to transfer since the percentage of the transaction cost is lower than lower quality land.

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