MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a group of small non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression by targeting mRNA. Moreover, it has been shown that miRNAs expression are changed in various diseases, such as cancers, autoimmune disease, infectious diseases, and neurodegenerative Diseases. The suppression of miRNA function can be easily attained by utilizing of anti-miRNAs. In contrast, an enhancement in miRNA function can be achieved through the utilization of modified miRNA mimetics. The discovery of appropriate miRNA carriers in the body has become an interesting subject for investigators. Exosomes (EXOs) therapeutic efficiency and safety for transferring different cellular biological components to the recipient cell have attracted significant attention for their capability as miRNA carriers. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are recognized to generate a wide range of EXOs (MSC-EXOs), showing that MSCs may be effective for EXO generation in a clinically appropriate measure as compared to other cell origins. MSC-EXOs have been widely investigated because of their immune attributes, tumor-homing attributes, and flexible characteristics. In this article, we summarized the features of miRNAs and MSC-EXOs, including production, purification, and miRNA loading methods of MSC-EXOs, and the modification of MSC-EXOs for targeted miRNA delivery in various diseases. Graphical abstract

Understanding the interaction of endophytic microbiomes and their tree hosts may provide insights into wood formation and quality. Given the role of wood in carbon and nutrient cycling, this will provide valuable insights for forest growth and carbon cycling globally. Furthermore, the management of these interactions may add new value to wood- and fibre-based forest products. We assessed the microbiome of outer and inner bark, cambium tissue, year 2-8 wood increments, and the pith of 11Pinus radiatatrees, a widely planted, model conifer species. Diverse prokaryotic and fungal microbiomes were present in all trees, with communities structured by tissue type (ρ<0.001). Inner and outer bark tissues had high richness and the most distinct communities. Microbiome richness was lowest in year 2 through to year 8 wood, and the communities in these samples had similar composition. Prokaryote communities were dominated by Alpha- Beta-, and Gamma-proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Firmicutes (Clostridia and Bacilli). Within fungal communities, Sordariomycetes comprised over 90% of the taxa present. Microbiomes of cambial and pith tissues were distinct to those niches. Overall, we provide further support that the wood of conifers is host to distinct microbiome communities. Microbiomes in these niches are profoundly placed to impact tree physiology, health, and fitness, through to ecosystem function and global carbon cycles.