Induction of nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain 2 (NOD2) and downstream receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 2 (RIPK2) by human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is known to up-regulate antiviral responses and suppress virus replication. We investigated the role of nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain 1 (NOD1), which also signals through RIPK2, in HCMV control. NOD1 activation by Tri-DAP (NOD1 agonist) suppressed HCMV and induced IFN-β. Mouse CMV was also inhibited through NOD1 activation. NOD1 knockdown (KD) or inhibition of its activity with small molecule ML130 enhanced HCMV replication in vitro. NOD1 mutations displayed differential effects on HCMV replication and antiviral responses. In cells overexpressing the E56K mutation in the caspase activation and recruitment domain, virus replication was enhanced, but in cells overexpressing the E266K mutation in the nucleotidebinding domain or the wild-type NOD1, HCMV was inhibited, changes that correlated with IFN-β expression. The interaction of NOD1 and RIPK2 determined the outcome of virus replication, as evidenced by enhanced virus growth in NOD1 E56K mutant cells (which failed to interact with RIPK2). NOD1 activities were executed through IFN-β, given that IFN-β KD reduced the inhibitory effect of Tri-DAP on HCMV. Signaling through NOD1 resulting in HCMV suppression was IKKα-dependent and correlated with nuclear translocation and phosphorylation of IRF3. Finally, NOD1 polymorphisms were significantly associated with the risk of HCMV infection in women who were infected with HCMV during participation in a glycoprotein B vaccine trial. Collectively, our data indicate a role for NOD1 in HCMV control via RIPK2-IKKα-IRF3 and suggest that its polymorphisms predict the risk of infection.H uman cytomegalovirus (HCMV), a member of the herpesvirus family, induces complex innate immune responses (1, 2). Despite this effective and multifaceted induction, HCMV has developed strategies to counteract its recognition (3), allowing for its productive replication and the establishment of latency. Identification and characterization of HCMV-induced innate immune responses and resulting signaling pathways may provide novel strategies for its control.Mounting evidence indicates that HCMV sensing is an intricate process involving activities of membrane, cytoplasmic, and nuclear receptors. Several HCMV-encoded proteins directly activate innate immune response molecules; the glycoprotein B (gB) binds to and activates TLR2 (4), and pp65 interacts with IFI16 (5). Other viral proteins, dsDNA, or dsRNA are likely to activate or inhibit host innate response molecules. Several previous reports have highlighted a complex role of the IFN pathway in response to HCMV. The activity of the promyeolcytic leukemia protein, a regulator of type I IFN response, is counteracted by HCMV-encoded immediate early 1 protein (IE1) (6). A cytoplasmic dsDNA sensor, ZBP1, activates IRF3 on infection, and its overexpression inhibits HCMV replication (7). IFN-inducible protein IFI16 modestly in...

We recently reported that induction of NOD2 by human Cytomegalovirus (HCMV) resulted in virus inhibition and upregulation of antiviral and inflammatory cytokines. Here we investigated the effects of muramyl dipeptide (MDP), a bacterial cell wall component that activates NOD2, on HCMV replication and antiviral responses. HCMV infection of human foreskin fibroblasts induced NOD2, the downstream receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 2 (RIPK2), resulting in phosphorylation of TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1) and interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3). MDP treatment following infection at low multiplicity (MOI = 0.1 PFU/cell) inhibited HCMV in a dose-dependent manner and further induced phosphorylation of TBK1, IRF3 and expression of IFN-β. None of these effects of MDP were observed following infection at multiplicity of 1. In infected NOD2 knocked-down cells MDP did not induce IFN-β, irrespective of MOI. Treatment with MDP before infection also inhibited HCMV, an effect augmented with treatment duration. Treatment with an IFN-β receptor blocking antibody or knockdown of IFN-β significantly attenuated the inhibitory effect of MDP on HCMV. MDP treatment before or after infection with herpesvirus 1 did not inhibit its replication. Summarized, NOD2 activation exerts anti-HCMV activities predominantly via IFN-β. Since MDP is a bacterial cell wall component, ongoing microbial exposure may influence HCMV replication.

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