Objective Harsh corporal punishment (HCP) during childhood is a chronic, developmental stressor associated with depression, aggression and addictive behaviors. Exposure to traumatic stressors, such as sexual abuse, is associated with alteration in brain structure, but nothing is known about the potential neurobiological consequences of HCP. The aim of this study was to investigate whether HCP was associated with discernible alterations in gray matter volume (GMV) using voxel-based morphometry (VBM). Methods 1,455 young adults (18–25 years) were screened to identify 23 with exposure to HCP (minimum 3 years duration, 12 episodes per year, frequently involving objects) and 22 healthy controls. High-resolution T1-weighted MRI datasets were obtained using Siemens 3T trio scanner. Results GMV was reduced by 19.1% in the right medial frontal gyrus (medial prefrontal cortex; MPFC, BA10) (P = 0.037, corrected cluster level), by 14.5% in the left medial frontal gyrus (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex; DLPFC, BA 9) (P = 0.015, uncorrected cluster level) and by 16.9% in the right anterior cingulate gyrus (BA 24) (P < 0.001, uncorrected cluster level) of HCP subjects. There were significant correlations between GMV in these identified regions and performance IQ on the WAIS-III. Conclusions Exposing children to harsh HCP may have detrimental effects on trajectories of brain development. However, it is also conceivable that differences in prefrontal cortical development may increase risk of exposure to HCP.

Objective Previous studies have shown that exposure to parental verbal abuse (VA) in childhood was associated with higher rates of adult psychopathology and alterations in brain structure. Here we examine the potential consequences of exposure to peer VA during childhood. Method A total of 848 young adults (ages 18 to 25 years) with no history of exposure to domestic violence, sexual abuse, or parental physical abuse rated their childhood exposure to parental and peer VA and completed a self-report packet that included the Kellner Symptom Questionnaire, the Limbic Symptom Checklist-33, and the Dissociative Experiences Scale. Diffusion tensor images were collected on a subset of 63 young adults with no history of abuse or exposure to parental VA selected for varying degrees of exposure to peer VA. Images were analyzed using tract based spatial statistics Results Analysis of covariance revealed ‘dose-dependent’ effects of peer VA on anxiety, depression, anger-hostility, dissociation, ‘limbic irritability’, and drug use. Peer and parental VA were essentially equivalent in effect size on these ratings. Path analysis indicated that peer VA during middle school years had the most significant effect on symptom scores. Degree of exposure to peer VA correlated with increased mean and radial diffusivity and decreased fractional anisotropy in corpus callosum and corona radiata. Conclusions These findings parallel previous reports of psychopathology associated with childhood exposure to parental VA, and support the hypothesis that exposure to peer VA is an aversive stimulus associated with increased symptom ratings and meaningful alterations in brain structure.

Objective-Exposure to parental verbal aggression (PVA) during childhood increases risk for the development of psychopathology, particularly mood and anxiety disorders. Other forms of childhood abuse have been found to be associated with alterations in brain structure. The aim of this study was to ascertain whether exposure to PVA was associated with discernible effects on brain morphology.Methods-Optimized voxel based morphometry was performed on 21 unmedicated, righthanded subjects (18-25 years) with histories of PVA and 19 psychiatrically healthy controls of comparable age and gender. Group differences in gray matter volume (GMV) -covaried by age, gender, parental education, financial stress, and total GMV -were assessed using high-resolution, T1-weighted, volumetric MRI data sets (Siemens 3T trio scanner).Results-GMV was increased by 14.1% in the left superior temporal gyrus (STG, BA 22) (P = 0.004, corrected cluster level). GMV in this cluster was associated most strongly with levels of maternal (β = 0.544, P < 0.0001) and paternal (β = 0.300, P < 0.02) verbal aggression and inversely associated with parental education (β = −0.577, P < 0.0001).Conclusion-Previous studies have demonstrated an increase in STG GMV in children with abuse histories, and found a reduction in fractional anisotropy in the arcuate fasciculus connecting Wernicke's and frontal areas in young adults exposed to PVA. These findings and the present results suggest that the development of auditory association cortex involved in language processing may be affected by exposure to early stress and/or emotionally-abusive language.

Harsh corporal punishment (HCP) was defined as frequent parental administration of corporal punishment (CP) for discipline, with occasional use of objects such as straps, or paddles. CP is linked to increased risk for depression and substance abuse. We examine whether long-term exposure to HCP acts as sub-traumatic stressor that contributes to brain alterations, particularly in dopaminergic pathways, which may mediate their increased vulnerability to drug and alcohol abuse. Nineteen young adults who experienced early HCP but no other forms of maltreatment and twenty-three comparable controls were studied. T2 relaxation time (T2-RT) measurements were performed with an echo planar imaging TE stepping technique and T2 maps were calculated and analyzed voxel-by-voxel to locate regional T2-RT differences between groups. Previous studies indicated that T2-RT provides an indirect index of resting cerebral blood volume. Region of interest (ROI) analyses were also conducted in caudate, putamen, nucleus accumbens, anterior cingulate cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, thalamus, globus pallidus and cerebellar hemispheres. Voxel-based relaxometry showed that HCP was associated with increased T2-RT in right caudate and putamen. ROI analyses also revealed increased T2-RT in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, substantia nigra, thalamus and accumbens but not globus pallidus or cerebellum. There were significant associations between T2-RT measures in dopamine target regions and use of drugs and alcohol, and memory performance. Alteration in the paramagnetic or hemodynamic properties of dopaminergic cell body and projection regions were observed in subjects with HCP, and these findings may relate to their increased risk for drug and alcohol abuse.