Systemic inflammatory reactions have been postulated to exacerbate neurodegenerative diseases via microglial activation. We now demonstrate in vivo that repeated systemic challenge of mice over four consecutive days with bacterial LPS maintained an elevated microglial inflammatory phenotype and induced loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. The same total cumulative LPS dose given within a single application did not induce neurodegeneration. Whole-genome transcriptome analysis of the brain demonstrated that repeated systemic LPS application induced an activation pattern involving the classical complement system and its associated phagosome pathway. Loss of dopaminergic neurons induced by repeated systemic LPS application was rescued in complement C3-deficient mice, confirming the involvement of the complement system in neurodegeneration. Our data demonstrate that a phagosomal inflammatory response of microglia is leading to complement-mediated loss of dopaminergic neurons.

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Age‐related macular degeneration (AMD) is a major cause of blindness in the elderly population. Its pathophysiology is linked to reactive oxygen species (ROS) and activation of the complement system. Sialic acid polymers prevent ROS production of human mononuclear phagocytes via the inhibitory sialic acid‐binding immunoglobulin‐like lectin‐11 (SIGLEC11) receptor. Here, we show that low‐dose intravitreal injection of low molecular weight polysialic acid with average degree of polymerization 20 (polySia avDP20) in humanized transgenic mice expressing SIGLEC11 on mononuclear phagocytes reduced their reactivity and vascular leakage induced by laser coagulation. Furthermore, polySia avDP20 prevented deposition of the membrane attack complex in both SIGLEC11 transgenic and wild‐type animals. In vitro, polySia avDP20 showed two independent, but synergistic effects on the innate immune system. First, polySia avDP20 prevented tumor necrosis factor‐α, vascular endothelial growth factor A, and superoxide production by SIGLEC11‐positive phagocytes. Second, polySia avDP20 directly interfered with complement activation. Our data provide evidence that polySia avDP20 ameliorates laser‐induced damage in the retina and thus is a promising candidate to prevent AMD‐related inflammation and angiogenesis.

Elimination of extracellular aggregates and apoptotic neural membranes without inflammation is crucial for brain tissue homeostasis. In the mammalian central nervous system, essential molecules in this process are the Fc receptors and the DAP12-associated receptors which both trigger the microglial immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif- (ITAM-) Syk-signaling cascade. Microglial triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-2 (TREM2), signal regulatory protein-β1, and complement receptor-3 (CD11b/CD18) signal via the adaptor protein DAP12 and activate phagocytic activity of microglia. Microglial ITAM-signaling receptors are counter-regulated by immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibition motif- (ITIM-) signaling molecules such as sialic acid-binding immunoglobulin superfamily lectins (Siglecs). Siglecs can suppress the proinflammatory and phagocytic activity of microglia via ITIM signaling. Moreover, microglial neurotoxicity is alleviated via interaction of Siglec-11 with sialic acids on the neuronal glycocalyx. Thus, ITAM- and ITIM-signaling receptors modulate microglial phagocytosis and cytokine expression during neuroinflammatory processes. Their dysfunction could lead to impaired phagocytic clearance and neurodegeneration triggered by chronic inflammation.