Melioidosis, also known as Whitmore’s disease, is a potentially fatal infection caused by the Gram-negative bacteria Burkholderia pseudomallei with a mortality rate of 10–50%. The condition is a “glanders-like” illness prevalent in Southeast Asian and Northern Australian regions and can affect humans, animals, and sometimes plants. Melioidosis received the epithet “the great mimicker” owing to its vast spectrum of non-specific clinical manifestations, such as localised abscesses, septicaemia, pneumonia, septic arthritis, osteomyelitis, and encephalomyelitis, which often lead to misdiagnosis and ineffective treatment. To date, antibiotics remain the backbone of melioidosis treatment, which includes intravenous therapy with ceftazidime or meropenem, followed by oral therapy with TMP-SMX or amoxicillin/clavulanic acid and supported by adjunctive treatment. However, bacteria have developed resistance to a series of antibiotics, including clinically significant ones, during treatment. Therefore, phage therapy has gained unprecedented interest and has been proposed as an alternative treatment. Although no effective phage therapy has been published, the findings of experimental phage therapies suggest that the concept could be feasible. This article reviews the benefits and limitations of antibiotics and phage therapy in terms of established regimens, bacterial resistance, host specificity, and biofilm degradation.

The One Health concept was initiated to promote the integration of human, animal, and environmental ecosystems into healthcare to ensure effective control and the sustainable governance of multifaceted health matters. Climate change, deforestation, and rigorous farming disrupt the environment, which serves as the natural habitat for many animals and microbes, increasing the likelihood of disease transmission between humans and animals. Melioidosis (neglected tropical diseases) and glanders are of humans and animals caused by the gram-negative bacteria Burkholderia pseudomallei and its close relative Burkholderia mallei, respectively. In Malaysia, although melioidosis is endemic, it is not a notifiable disease. Hence, the true prevalence of melioidosis in Malaysia is unknown and varies in different regions of the country, with reported hotspots associated with agriculture-related activities. To date, no incidence of human glanders has been reported in Malaysia, although occupational exposure for equine handlers and veterinary professionals remains a concern. Additionally, antibiotics are widely used in the healthcare and veterinary sectors to treat or prevent B. pseudomallei and B. mallei infections, leading to the emergence of resistance in B. pseudomallei. Lack of surveillance, research, assessment, and management of glanders and melioidosis is a major issue in Malaysia. Proper assessment systems and cross-discipline cooperation are vital to recognize and manage both diseases. Experts and practitioners from clinical and veterinary disciplines, environmentalists, law enforcement, policymakers, researchers, local communities, and other experts need to communicate, collaborate, and coordinate activities to fill the knowledge gap on glanders and melioidosis to reduce morbidity and mortality rates in the country. This review aims to define the organizational and functional characteristics of One Health surveillance approaches for glanders and melioidosis from a Malaysian perspective.

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