Sanda is a combat sport in which athletes adopt offensive and defensive techniques for barehanded confrontations. Inhibition of return (IOR) describes a phenomenon in which an individual’s response time to a target appearing at a previously cued location is slower than to a target appearing at an un-cued location. Because Sanda requires attention skills and fast response times in dynamic situations, a good understanding of IOR among Sanda athletes is important for enhancing their performance. We recruited 180 research participants for a 3-part study — 90 Sanda athletes (age M = 21.56, SD = 2.68; 52 males, 38 females) and 90 college student controls (age M = 21.64, SD = 2.40; 45 males, 45 females). We used the IOR paradigm with virtual reality technology to explore Sanda athletes’ IOR in three experimental conditions: three-dimensional (3-D) static, dynamic, and mixed. There was a robust IOR effect in the 3-D static scenario, with the IOR effect larger among Sanda athletes than controls. There were different IOR spread patterns between Sanda athletes and controls, and the IOR effect was weaker or absent when the objects moved. There was a speed advantage for Sanda athletes once a static object started moving. In conclusion, the Sanda athletes’ faster response times and more fine-graded IOR in 3-D environments may benefit their visual search in combat, and the reference of the static location may be critical for the IOR effect.
In the present study we investigated expert and novice football (i.e., soccer) goalkeepers' three stages of perceiving changes in open play situations—detection, localization, and identification—with and without time constraints. We adopted the continual cycling flicker paradigm to investigate goalkeepers' perceptions when provided with sufficient time (Experiment 1), and we utilized the limited display one-shot change detection paradigm to study their perceptions under time constraints (Experiment 2). Images of goalkeepers' first-person views of open play soccer scenes were used as stimuli. Semantic or non-semantic changes in these scenes were produced by modifying one element in each image. Separate groups of expert and novice goalkeepers were required to detect, localize, and identify the scene changes. We found that expert goalkeepers detected scene changes more quickly than novices under both time allowances. Furthermore, compared to novices, experts localized the changes more accurately under time constraints and identified the changes more quickly when given sufficient time. Additionally, semantic changes were detected more quickly and localized and identified more accurately than non-semantic changes when there was sufficient time. Under time constraints expert goalkeepers' greater efficiency was likely due to pre-attentive processing; with sufficient time, they were able to focus attention to extracting detailed information for identification.
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