Since production of non-timber forest products (NTFP) does not involve logging in principle, and provides income, it is expected to contribute for forest conservation as well as local people , s well-being. Studies have been carried out to evolve the factors determining the sustainability of NTFP production. This paper aims to provide additional information on thitsi (Melanorrhoea usitata / Gluta usitata, lacquer resin) production system of Myanmar. Thitsi has been used for centuries, but the production system is not known well. Plot surveys and interviews at three villages in Sagaing Division were conducted to obtain information about the production system of thitsi. Questions were mainly about (1) the method of resin collection, (2) situation of land and forest regulations, property rights and organizations, (3) economic conditions of producers and non-producers. The results showed that the tapping method seemed to have low impact on the thitsi trees at present, but there was no regeneration activity, the legal property rights were not clear, and there was no institution to control the use by people of other villages. The present situation seemed to be retained by the self-sufficient way of the livings of the local people, and the nature of the resin market that was mainly for domestic purposes with a relatively stable demand. However, competition for thitsi trees was observed, so if the people need more cash and the markets drastically expand in the future, it might be difficult to keep control of the use of this forest resource.

Biofuel production on degraded lands with tree-borne oilseeds (TBOs) is assumed to have less negative impact on the forests and food supply, and to have economic benefit for the rural poor. India has launched a national policy to encourage production of TBOs. Our aim was to determine how TBOs are produced, what kind of socio-economic roles they play in the rural economy, and to discuss whether those roles will be affected if the demand for biofuel increases. We interviewed farmers, middlemen, and refining factories in Karnataka State about the production and sale of the TBOs, Neem (Azadirachta indica) and Pongamia (Pongamia pinnata). Regarding TBO production, we found that the trees were multi-purpose and that oil extraction from seeds was one of several utilities. The trees were arranged along field boundaries, probably to avoid competition with crops, to make it easier to collect the seeds, and to avoid interfering with ploughs. Seeds were collected from the ground, mainly by women, during the no-har vest season, providing households with a small additional income. TBOs provide a minor subsistence, allowing treeless people to collect seeds from the trees held by others without charge; thus the seeds could be regarded as a common pool resource. At present, the production of TBOs at the research site seemed to have a small ecological impact, low food conflict, and certain contribution to carbon sequestration. Once TBOs gain greater value, the nature of this resource might change, becoming exclusive private property. Inter vention to promote the reproduction of TBO trees is recommended since only one household surveyed has planted TBOs in the past.

Taungya system that originally started in 19th century British Burma is now applied in many countries to serve as a tool for reforestation of degraded areas. Understanding the behavior of taungya farmers is crucial for better management of taungya plantation projects but so far little research has been conducted on this subject. Through a case study in the Bago Range of Myanmar, this paper argues that ecological factors and the Burmans' customary land tenure were affecting the taungya farmers attitude towards the project. In the Reserved Forests (RF) there are cultivators who live on agriculture utilizing lowlands as well as uplands. Some of these cultivators were recruited by the Forest Department for the project, but at the same time the project itself was distributing taungya farmers as new cultivators in the RF, since the lowland was not involved in the project. Through this procedure the department was achieving plantation targets in remote areas, and virtually demarcating the boundary of the RF. However, the recruitment of cultivators is uncertain, and the lowlands escape from forest legislation. The cultivators are granted no legal right to live in the RF and they receive little administrative support from the government. Therefore, to ascertain sustainable man-made forest management, more investment in forest administration and social welfare might be required, and the department may face the necessity of seeking a way to accommodate more funding.

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