No abstract

The c-Myc oncogenic transcription factor (Myc) is pathologically activated in many human malignancies. Myc is known to directly upregulate a pro-tumorigenic group of microRNAs (miRNAs) known as the miR-17-92 cluster. Through the analysis of human and mouse models of B cell lymphoma, we show here that Myc regulates a much broader set of miRNAs than previously anticipated. Unexpectedly, the predominant consequence of activation of Myc is widespread repression of miRNA expression. Chromatin immunoprecipitation reveals that much of this repression is likely to be a direct result of Myc binding to miRNA promoters. We further show that enforced expression of repressed miRNAs diminishes the tumorigenic potential of lymphoma cells. These results demonstrate that extensive reprogramming of the miRNA transcriptome by Myc contributes to tumorigenesis.

The present studies were performed to determine subtype-specific roles of mitogen-activated protein kinase in chondrogenesis. Erk-1/2 activities, downstream of protein kinase C, decreased as chondrogenesis proceeded, whereas p38 activities, independent of protein kinase C, continuously increased during chondrogenesis. Inhibition of Erk-1/2 with PD98059 enhanced chondrogenesis up to 1.7-fold, whereas inhibition of p38 with SB203580 reduced it to about 30% of the control level. Inhibition of Erk-1/2 or p38 did not affect precartilage condensation. However, cartilage nodule formation was significantly blocked by the inhibition of p38, whereas Erk-1/2 inhibition did not affect it. Modulation of chondrogenesis by the inhibition of Erk-1/2 and p38 was accompanied by altered expression of adhesion molecules in an opposite way. Expression of N-cadherin was reduced as chondrogenesis proceeded. Inhibition of p38 caused sustained expression of N-cadherin, whereas Erk-1/2 inhibition accelerated the reduction of N-cadherin expression. Expression of integrin ␣5␤1 and fibronectin were found to transiently increase during chondrogenesis. Inhibition of p38 caused continuous increase of expression of these molecules, whereas Erk-1/2 inhibition accelerated the decrease of expression of these molecules at a later period of chondrogenesis. Because temporal expression of these adhesion molecules regulates chondrogenesis, the above results indicate that Erk-1/2 and p38 conversely regulate chondrogenesis at post-precartilage condensation stages by modulating expression of adhesion molecules.Formation of cartilage is initiated by differentiation of mesenchymes into chondrocytes. The differentiation process requires proliferation of chondrogenic competent cells that subsequently undergo precartilage condensation (1-3). Precartilage condensation is characterized by cells that are more densely packed in specific regions. This precartilage condensation is an important prerequisite for the initiation of chondrogenesis in mesenchymes in vivo. It becomes evident that several adhesion molecules including cadherins (4-7), integrins (8, 9), and extracellular matrix (ECM) 1 components (9-12) regulate precartilage condensation. Limb mesenchymes undergo spontaneous differentiation to chondrocytes in vitro when cultured at a high seeding density such as micromass culture in the presence of serum. Precartilage condensation similar to that formed in vivo during chondrogenesis occurs in micromass cultures of limb mesenchymes (13). The cellular aggregates that form in early micromass cultures subsequently differentiate into cartilage nodules, which express cartilage-specific molecules such as type II collagen (6, 14-16). However, the signal transduction pathways involved in precartilage condensation and initiated by condensation are not well characterized.We have previously shown that protein kinase C (PKC) positively regulates chondrogenesis of mesenchymes (17,18). PKC is a multigene family composed of 11 known isoforms (19,20). Multiple PKC isoforms su...

Myostatin is a TGF-β family member that normally acts to limit skeletal muscle mass. Follistatin is a myostatin-binding protein that can inhibit myostatin activity in vitro and promote muscle growth in vivo. Mice homozygous for a mutation in the Fst gene have been shown to die immediately after birth but have a reduced amount of muscle tissue, consistent with a role for follistatin in regulating myogenesis. Here, we show that Fst mutant mice exhibit haploinsufficiency, with muscles of Fst heterozygotes having significantly reduced size, a shift toward more oxidative fiber types, an impairment of muscle remodeling in response to cardiotoxin-induced injury, and a reduction in tetanic force production yet a maintenance of specific force. We show that the effect of heterozygous loss of Fst is at least partially retained in a Mstn-null background, implying that follistatin normally acts to inhibit other TGF-β family members in addition to myostatin to regulate muscle size. Finally, we present genetic evidence suggesting that activin A may be one of the ligands that is regulated by follistatin and that functions with myostatin to limit muscle mass. These findings potentially have important implications with respect to the development of therapeutics targeting this signaling pathway to preserve muscle mass and prevent muscle atrophy in a variety of inherited and acquired forms of muscle degeneration.