Kaposi's Sarcoma (KS), caused by Kaposi's Sarcoma Herpesvirus (KSHV), is a highly vascularised angiogenic tumor of endothelial cells, characterized by latently KSHV-infected spindle cells and a pronounced inflammatory infiltrate. Several KSHV proteins, including LANA-1 (ORF73), vCyclin (ORF72), vGPCR (ORF74), vIL6 (ORF-K2), vCCL-1 (ORF-K6), vCCL-2 (ORF-K4) and K1 have been shown to exert effects that can lead to the proliferation and atypical differentiation of endothelial cells and/or the secretion of cytokines with angiogenic and inflammatory properties (VEGF, bFGF, IL6, IL8, GROα, and TNFβ). To investigate a role of the KSHV K15 protein in KSHV-mediated angiogenesis, we carried out a genome wide gene expression analysis on primary endothelial cells infected with KSHV wildtype (KSHVwt) and a KSHV K15 deletion mutant (KSHVΔK15). We found RCAN1/DSCR1 (Regulator of Calcineurin 1/Down Syndrome critical region 1), a cellular gene involved in angiogenesis, to be differentially expressed in KSHVwt- vs KSHVΔK15-infected cells. During physiological angiogenesis, expression of RCAN1 in endothelial cells is regulated by VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) through a pathway involving the activation of PLCγ1, Calcineurin and NFAT1. We found that K15 directly recruits PLCγ1, and thereby activates Calcineurin/NFAT1-dependent RCAN1 expression which results in the formation of angiogenic tubes. Primary endothelial cells infected with KSHVwt form angiogenic tubes upon activation of the lytic replication cycle. This effect is abrogated when K15 is deleted (KSHVΔK15) or silenced by an siRNA targeting the K15 expression. Our study establishes K15 as one of the KSHV proteins that contribute to KSHV-induced angiogenesis.

Use of the Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) bacterial artificial chromosome 36 (KSHV-BAC36) genome permits reverse genetics approaches to study KSHV biology. While sequencing the complete KSHV-BAC36 genome, we noted a duplication of a 9-kb fragment of the long unique region in the terminal repeat region. This duplication covers a part of open reading frame (ORF) 19, the complete ORFs 18, 17, 16, K7, K6, and K5, and the putative ORF in the left origin of lytic replication, and it contains the BAC cassette. This observation needs to be kept in mind if viral genes located within the duplicated region are to be mutated in KSHV-BAC36.

Nonmelanoma skin cancer (NMSC) shows a strongly increased incidence in solid organ transplant recipients (OTRs) and AIDS patients, suggesting an infectious etiology. The role of certain viruses, i.e., cutaneous human papillomaviruses (HPVs), in NMSC in immunosuppressed patients remains controversial. Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV), which was recently identified using high-throughput sequencing, has been linked to cutaneous proliferations. Here, we aimed to identify novel or known viral sequences at the transcript level in cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) from OTR by using 454 high-throughput pyrosequencing, which can produce long reads (~400 bp) and thus is better suited for the analysis of unknown sequences than other sequencing platforms. cDNA libraries from three OTR SCC biopsies were generated and submitted to nextgeneration sequencing using a 454 platform. Bioinformatic analysis included digital transcriptome subtraction and-in parallel-reference mapping as an alternative way for depleting human sequences. All control sequences introduced for bioinformatics analysis were recovered correctly. Among 717,029 454-sequenced transcripts, nearly all identified viral reads were derived from phages. Bacterial sequences originated from the skin flora or environmental sources. Our study did not reveal any transcripts of known oncogenic or related unknown human viruses. These findings suggest that there is no abundant expression of known human viruses, or viruses with a high degree of homology to known human viruses, in cutaneous SCCs of OTR. Further studies are required to exclude the presence of viruses in NMSC, which cannot easily be identified on the basis of sequence homology to known viruses.Nonmelanoma skin cancer (NMSC) including cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is the most common skin cancer among solid organ transplant recipients (OTRs) and a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in these patients.1,2 The NMSC rates are markedly increased in OTR and AIDS patients compared to the general population. 3,4 Furthermore, OTRs with NMSC tend to have multiple tumor lesions, a higher recurrence rate and the tumors are more likely to metastasize. 5-7Established risk factors for NMSC include exposure to ultraviolet radiation, fair color of the skin and immunosuppressive treatment.1,2 The question whether the increased NMSC rate in immunocompromised individuals-in particular OTR-could reflect a viral involvement in skin carcinogenesis has been investigated intensively. Although there is evidence that human papillomaviruses (HPVs), especially from species beta and gamma, could play a role in the development of NMSC, their etiologic role is discussed controversially. 8,9 Consistent with this, a recent study investigating the cancer transcriptome of 31 cutaneous SCCs by high-throughput sequencing (Illumina) failed to detect active HPV expression in any of the tumor samples.10 This suggests that HPV may not play role in the continuous proliferation of SCC cells.Massive parallel sequencing has opened ...

Patients treated with BRAF inhibitors (e.g. vemurafenib), a novel targeted therapy for advanced melanoma harbouring certain BRAF mutations, develop numerous adverse cutaneous side effects, including skin tumors such as squamous cell carcinoma or non-malignant verruciform keratinocyte proliferations, termed 'BRAF-inhibitor-associated verrucous keratosis (BAVK) lesions'. These keratinocyte proliferations are believed to be caused by paradoxical hyperactivation of the MAPK pathway in cells with wild-type BRAF, but mutated RAS. However, due to the clinical and histological verruca-like appearance of these lesions, additional aetiologic cofactors, such as infectious agents (i.e. oncogenic viruses), might be suspected. Therefore, we performed 454 high-throughput sequencing of BAVK lesions from vemurafenib-treated patients on the transcript level to identify actively transcribed viral sequences of known [e.g. human papilloma viruses (HPV)] or even yet-unknown viruses. Next-generation sequencing did not identify transcripts of any human viruses out of 1 595 161 reads obtained from BAVK lesions of four patients. Nevertheless, all controls were recognized correctly, and the detection of sequences derived from the cutaneous microbiome (e.g. skin commensals and bacterial phages) confirmed the validity and sensitivity of the sequencing data. Our results are consistent with preliminary histological and immunohistochemical findings recently reported by others, who also failed to detect the expression of HPV proteins in BAVK. Although the patient number is limited and we cannot exclude the possibility of having missed a viral transcript of very low abundance, our study argues against a viral aetiology of BRAF-inhibitor-associated verruciform keratoses occurring under vemurafenib.