Homegardens have long been recognized for contributing to household food security, nutritional status, and ecological sustainability in especially poor, rural areas in low-income countries. However, as markets and policies drive the commercialization of food and farming systems, and of rural livelihoods in general, it becomes increasingly difficult for smallholder farmers to maintain homegarden plots. Rather than autonomous spaces to grow food for self-consumption, farmers are transforming the land around their dwellings into an income-generating space by planting commercial crops for sale in urban and processing markets. The objective of this study was to examine homegarden commercialization in the Upper Citarum Watershed of West Java, Indonesia, and its effects on food security and food sovereignty. We employed a mixed-method approach to survey 81 village households involved in agricultural production. For quantitative analysis, we calculated a "homegarden commercialization index," and developed indicator frameworks to examine relationships between commercialization, household food security, and food-related decision-making. Accompanied by insights from qualitative interviews, our results show that homegardens are highly commercialized, which contributes to the spread of monocultural production in the region. We argue that homegardens should be included and supported in food, agricultural, health, environmental, and rural development policy, in Indonesia and generally.

This paper analyses household preferences for in-house piped water in urban and rural Indonesia via a hedonic price model, specified as a constrained autoregression-structural equation model (ASEM). ASEM reduces bias due to time-varying omitted variables and measurement errors. In addition, it provides a convenient way of testing and correcting for endogeneity. On the basis of the Indonesia Family Life Survey data set, we find that on average urban and rural households have the same willingness to pay for in-house piped water, that is, 34.24 per cent of their monthly house rent. For the 25 per cent urban and rural households with lowest expenditure, this percentage is equivalent to 9.41 per cent and 7.57 per cent of their monthly expenditure, respectively. The findings support a need for further investment in in-house piped water in both areas, particularly for the households with the lowest expenditure levels.JEL classification: C33, C38, R15, R22

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Oxygen plays a crucial role in aquatic ecosystem particularly for supporting aquaculture and hydropower. In freshwater, importance of oxygen is for metabolic respiration and balance for heterotrophic organisms. Oxygen is also involved in various chemical equations in which compounds influence each other. To prevent oxygen depletion, understanding the changes in DO and all interactions with other water qualities been reviewed with purposed to know aqueous systems work. Photosynthesis by phytoplankton is the main production of dissolved oxygen. Carbon dioxide as output from respiration of microorganisms and degradation of organic inputs and light as energy transformation of photosynthesis is needed in the process. The temperature level is involved as a determinant of gas solubility. There is also gas exchange from atmosphere to water as oxygen diffusion that move toward an equilibrium. However, dissolved oxygen absorption occurs in high demand in case an oxidizer in the degradation of organic matter which come into the reservoir. In eutrophic condition, the abundance of phytoplankton also requires oxygen for respiration, especially at night. The consumption of dissolved oxygen often spurs reservoir managers to monitor the input into the reservoir to build an aerator as a form of ensuring adequate dissolved oxygen circulation.