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Introduction The increasing prevalence of waterpipe tobacco smoking (WTS) and its detrimental effects on memory function have been reported. This study was conducted to investigate the effect of moderate-intensity endurance exercise on the detrimental effects of WTS on learning and spatial memory in rats. Methods Animals were divided into: control group (CTL), the exercise group (Ex) which trained for 8 weeks, the waterpipe tobacco smoking group (Wp) exposed to smoke inhalation (30 min per day, 5 days each week, for 8 weeks), and the group that did exercise training and received waterpipe smoke together (Ex + Wp). Thereafter, learning and spatial memory were assessed by Morris water maze test and hippocampal molecular measurements were done. Results Waterpipe smoke significantly impaired learning and spatial memory, decreased expression of neurotrophic factors IGF-1 and BDNF (P<0.01 and P<0.05 vs. CTL group, respectively), increased BAX /BCL-2 ratio (P<0.001 vs. CTL group) in hippocampal tissue, and increased the percent of damaged neurons in the hippocampal CA1 area (P<0.05 vs. CTL group). Combination of exercise training with WTS prevented learning and spatial memory disturbances and recovered expression of neurotrophic factors IGF-1 (P<0.05 vs. Wp group), decreased BAX/ BCL-2 ratio (P<0.001 vs. Wp group), and reduced percentage of damaged neurons (P<0.05 vs. Wp group). Conclusion Findings suggest that moderate-intensity endurance exercise training can ameliorate learning and memory impairment caused by waterpipe smoke in rats. This effect partly results from increasing the expression of neurotrophic factors BDNF and IGF-1 and correcting pro/anti-apoptotic proteins balance in the hippocampal tissue. Implications Popularity of waterpipe tobacco smoking especially in youth is increasing. We assessed the effect of hookah smoke with/without exercise on learning and memory. Hookah smoke leads to CA1-neural injury and impairs learning and memory in rats. A combination of exercise training with hookah smoke attenuates these complications. This positive effect of exercise is partially mediated by the balancing of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and also the BAX / BCL-2 ratio, a significant predictor of cell susceptibility to apoptosis. Extrapolation of these positive findings to humans needs complementary studies.

Objectives: This study aimed to determine the levels of IgM and IgG antibody response to the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV)-2 in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients with different disease severity.Methods: IgM and IgG antibody levels were evaluated via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). In total, 100 patients with confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection were enrolled in this study and viral RNA was detected by using Real-time PCR technique. Clinical and laboratory data were collected and analyzed after hospital admission for COVID-19 and two months post-admission. Results: The level of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody IgG was significantly higher in the severe patients than those in moderate and mild groups, 2 months after admission. Also, level of IgG was positively associated with increased WBC, NUT and LYM counts in sever than mild or moderate groups after admission to hospital.Conclusion: Our findings suggested that patients with severe illness might experience longer virus exposure times and have a stronger antibody response against viral infection. Thus, they have longer time immunity compared with other groups.