Soil moisture is highly variable in space and time; moreover, it has nonlinear effects on a wide variety of environmental systems. Understanding the multiple hydrological processes, developing more accurate models of those processes, and applying those models to conservation planning all benefit greatly from a better characterization of temporal and geographic variability in soil moisture. Vegetation indices (VIs) are used to assess vegetative coverings objectively and subjectively through spectral observations. The spectral responses of vegetated areas are influenced by many factors, including vegetation and soil brightness, environmental influences, soil color, and moisture. This research looked into the soil adjusted indices SAVI and MSAVI for the city of Bristol in the United Kingdom and assessed them. The Landsat 8 OLI of the research area was downloaded, whereas Bands 4 and 5 were processed in a geographic information system (GIS) to provide SAVI and MSAVI. The obtained values for the SAVI index are between -0.557 and 0.425, and the obtained values for the MSAVI index are between -1.183 and 0.441. The MSAVI is able to extract a thicker layer of vegetation than the SAVI. Similarly, MSAVI has revealed more non-vegetated locations compared to those extracted by SAVI. Since the MSAVI index provides reliable signals of land cover, it should be used in research applications. Technically, the work presented the GIS functionality of a raster calculator for processing Landsat 8 OLI data, and regionally, it added to the studies of Bristol City.

The research describes the effect of space debris on near-Earth space in order to reveal the concept of space debris composition and origin of debris, to determine the effect of space debris on space orbital flights by discussing the spatial distribution of debris, the Collisions of spacecraft with debris and their consequences, the probability of collisions of spacecraft with debris, and Measures to limit debris contamination of near-Earth space. Also, the expected consequences of debris contamination of space and the Earth have been identified in this research as the frequency of dangerous encounters between debris and vehicles will almost double. By 2059, this figure will quadruple. If we translate this prediction into absolute numbers, it turns out that in 2019 satellites and space debris converged 20 thousand times a week, and in 2059–50 thousand. Now the number of such events is about 13 thousand per week. The need to track hazards and ensure evasive maneuvers will significantly increase the cost of space missions. The research describes the ways to remove space debris from orbit by using jet propulsion devices (both high and low thrust), aerodynamic braking means, Collection of artificial objects using special spacecraft and their subsequent withdrawal, and using a solar sail.